Chapter Ten example #9014

underlies a considerable amount of development during the preschool years; involves children's wonder about nature of the self; may affect children for the rest of their lives

according to erikson, development that encompasses changes both in the understandings individuals have of themselves as members of society and in their comprehension of the meaning of others' behavior

in this stage, children are in conflict between their desires to act independently of their parents and, on the other hand, guilt that comes from the unintended consequences of their actions; successful resolution of this conflict leads children to realize that they are persons in their own right, and they then begin to make decisions that will shape their lives

a person's identity or set of beliefs about what one is like as an individual

a philosophy that promotes the notion of interdependence

a philosophy that emphasizes personal identity and the uniqueness of the individual

the phenomenon in which minority children indicate preferences for majority values or people

this age group often has very strict ideas of gender-appropriate behavior; have more gender-stereotyped expectations than those of adults; have conceptions that are less flexible than at any other point in life span

sex-related biological characteristics that affect gender-based behaviors

the process in which children attempt to be similar to their parent of the same sex, incorporating the parent's attitudes and values

children learn gender-related behavior and expectations by observing others; observation of rewards for acting in a gender-appropriate manner leads child to conform to such behavior

the perception of oneself as male or female

cognitive frame work that organizes information relevant to gender

the fact that people are permanently males or females, depending on fixed, unchangeable biological factors

individuals establish a gender identity, a perception of themselves as male or female; develop a gender schema, or a cognitive frame work that organizes information relevant to gender

our ancestors who behaved in ways that are now stereotypically feminine or masculine may have been more successful in reproducing. Brain differences may lead to gender differences.

gender development is the result of identification with the same-sex parent, achieved by moving through a series of stages related to biological urges

children learn gender-related behavior and expectations from their observation of other behavior

through the use of gender schemas, developed early in life, preschoolers form a lens through which they view the world. They use their increasing cognitive abilities to develop "rules" about what is appropriate for males and females

-age 3: children begin to develop real friendships, as peers come to be seen as individuals who hold some special qualities and rewards -ideas about friendship gradually evolve -the quality and kinds of interactions children have with friends changes during the preschool period

essential for the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional wellbeing of children and youth; basic right for every child

play that involves simple, repetitive activities typical of three year olds

play in which children manipulate objects to produce or build something

action in which children play with similar toys, in a similar manner, but do not interact with each other

action in which children simply watch others at play but do not actually participate themselves

play in which two or more children interact by sharing or borrowing toys or materials, although they do not do the same thing

play in which children genuinely interact with one another, taking turns, playing games, or devising contests

-brain maturation is an important factor -as myelination within the frontal lobes becomes more pronounced, preschoolers develop more emotional capacity involving self awareness -developing language skills are also related to the increasing sophistication of children's theory of minds -cultural factors also play an important role

authoritarian parents, permissive parents, authoritative parents, uninvolved parents

parents who are controlling, punitive, rigid, and cold and whose word is law; they value strict, unquestioning obedience from their children and do not tolerate expressions of disagreement

parents who provide lax and inconsistent feedback and require little of their children

parents who are firm setting clean and consistent limits, but try to reason with their children, explaining why they should behave in a particular way

parents who show virtually no interest in their children, displaying indifferent rejecting behavior

-childrearing practices in Eastern societies are more likely to involve strict control -such control is seen as a measure of parents' involvement in and concern for the welfare of their children -in western societies, and especially in the united states, parents are advised to use authoritative methods

the maturation of people's sense of justice, of what is right and wrong, and their behavior in connection with such issues

heteronomous morality; incipient cooperation stage; autonomous cooperation stage

focuses on the moral reasoning of children; heteronomous morality is the initial stage of moral development in which rules are seen as invariant, unchangeable, and beyond people's influence and control; believe in immanent justice

helping behavior that benefits others

the process in which modeling paves the way for the development of more general rules and principles

focuses on how the environment influences children's moral behavior, in particular, prosocial behavior, helping behavior that benefits others; moral conduct is learned through reinforcement and modeling

the understanding of what another individual feels

intentional injury or harm to another person

the capability to adjust one's emotions to a desired state and level of intensity

aggression motivated by a desire to obtain a concrete goal

nonphysical aggression that is intended to hurt another person's psychological well-being