Since the advent of the Internet, there has been a(n) ________ in the percentage of American couples who report meeting online. The percentage meeting online is currently ________ among same-sex couples than among heterosexual couples.
a. increase; larger
b. decrease; larger
c. increase; smaller
d. decrease; smaller
question
d. telomeres.
answer
The tips of chromosomes that wear down as we age are called
a. mitochondria.
b. genes.
c. antibodies.
d. telomeres.
question
c. level of life satisfaction.
answer
There is very little relationship between the age of an adult and his or her
a. risk of neurocognitive disorder.
b. susceptibility to accidental physical injury.
c. level of life satisfaction.
d. ability to recall meaningless information.
question
d. role confusion.
answer
Jessica acts so differently with her parents than with her girlfriends that she often thinks her personality is completely phony. Erik Erikson would have suggested that Jessica is experiencing
a. delay of gratification.
b. stagnation.
c. generativity.
d. role confusion.
question
b nonsense syllables.
answer
As adults grow older, they are most likely to show a decline in their ability to remember
a famous people.
b nonsense syllables.
c practical skills.
d musical lyrics.
question
a postconventional
answer
Mark believes that choosing to violate government laws is morally justifiable if it is done to protect the lives of innocent people. Kohlberg would suggest that this illustrates ________ morality.
a postconventional
b preconventional
c conventional
d unconventional
question
d. frontal lobes; limbic system
answer
During adolescence, maturation of the ________ lags behind maturation of the ________.
a. limbic system; frontal lobes
b. brainstem; pituitary
c. pituitary; brainstem
d. frontal lobes; limbic system
question
a fertility.
answer
Menopause involves a decline in
a fertility.
b testosterone.
c social identity.
d maturation.
question
b integrity.
answer
According to Erikson, older adults can most effectively cope with the prospect of their own death if they have achieved a sense of
a terminal decline.
b integrity.
c identity.
d competence.
question
d. is less susceptible to catching colds.
answer
Judson is a 70-year-old retired automobile mechanic. In contrast to when he was 20, he now probably
a. has a greater fear of death.
b. would not do as well on a vocabulary test.
c. experiences less life satisfaction.
d. is less susceptible to catching colds.
question
c. do all of these things.
answer
Physical exercise in late adulthood has been found to
a. enhance muscle strength.
b. stimulate brain cell development.
c. do all of these things.
d. help prevent heart disease.
question
a formal operations.
answer
Adolescents' sense of what's fair is most likely to change from simple equality to what's proportional to merit when they achieve
a formal operations.
b an identity.
c preconventional morality.
d menarche.
question
a. career choices; clothing preferences
answer
Adolescents are most likely to be influenced by their parents with respect to ________, and they are most likely to be influenced by their peers with respect to ________.
a. career choices; clothing preferences
b. bedtime preferences; political views
c. online communication habits; college choices
d. dating practices; religious faith
question
a. neurocognitive disorder.
answer
Among older adults, hearing loss, and its associated social isolation, predicts the incidence of depression and
a. neurocognitive disorder.
b. a death-deferral phenomenon.
c. brain plasticity.
d. menopause.
question
d rite of passage
answer
A public initiation into adult responsibilities and status is called a
a delay of gratification.
b pruning process.
c critical period.
d rite of passage
question
behavior geneticists
answer
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
question
environment
answer
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
question
chromosomes
answer
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
question
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
answer
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
question
genes
answer
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
question
genome
answer
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
question
identical twins (monozygotic)
answer
develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
have names genes but not same number of copies of those genes
more similar in terms of extroversion, neuroticism
question
fraternal twins (dizygotic)
answer
develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment
question
temperament
answer
a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
question
heritability
answer
the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied
question
interaction
answer
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
question
molecular behavior genetics
answer
the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior
question
epigenetics
answer
the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
question
Genes are the biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes, the threadlike coils of DNA. When genes are "turned on" (expressed), they provide the code for creating the proteins that form our body's building blocks. Most human traits are influenced by many genes acting together. The human genome is the shared genetic profile that distinguishes humans from other species, consisting at an individual level of all the genetic material in an organism's chromosomes. Behavior geneticists study the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
answer
What are chromosomes, DNA, genes, and the human genome? How do behavior geneticists explain our individual differences?
question
Studies of identical (monozygotic) twins versus fraternal (dizygotic) twins, separated twins, and biological versus adoptive relatives allow researchers to tease apart the influences of heredity and environment. Research studies on separated identical twins maintain the same genes while testing the effects of different home environments. Studies of adoptive families let researchers maintain the same home environment while studying the effects of genetic differences. Heritable individual differences (in traits such as height and weight) do not necessarily explain gender or ethnic group differences. Shared family environments have little effect on personality.
answer
How do twin and adoption studies help us understand the effects and interactions of nature and nurture?
question
The stability of temperament, a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, from the first weeks of life suggests a genetic predisposition. The genetic effect appears in physiological differences such as heart rate and nervous system reactivity.
answer
What have psychologists learned about temperament?
question
Heritability describes the extent to which variation among members of a group can be attributed to genes. Heritable individual differences (in traits such as height or intelligence) need not imply heritable group differences. Genes mostly explain why some people are taller than others, but not why people are taller today than they were a century ago.
answer
What is heritability, and how does it relate to individuals and groups?
question
Molecular genetics research on structure and function of genes is building new understandings of how teams of genes influence many human traits. One goal of molecular behavior genetics, the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior, is to find some of the many genes that together orchestrate complex traits (such as body weight, sexual orientation, and impulsivity). Environments can trigger or block genetic expression. The field of epigenetics studies the influences on gene expression that occur without changes in DNA.
answer
How is molecular genetics research changing our understanding of the effects of nature and nurture?
question
Genetic tests can now reveal at-risk populations for dozens of diseases, and the search is on to discover the markers of genetically influenced disorders. But prenatal screening poses ethical dilemmas. For example, testing for an offspring's sex has enabled selective abortions, which in some cultures has resulted in millions more male births. And future screening for vulnerability to psychological disorders could deprive the world of great talents. (Handel, van Gogh, Churchill, Lincoln, Tolstoy, and Dickinson were all troubled people, for example.)
answer
What are some benefits and risks of prenatal genetic testing?
question
gene, chromosome, nucleus
answer
Put the following cell structures in order from smallest to largest: nucleus, gene, chromosome
question
23 chromosomes
answer
When the mother's egg and the father's sperm unite, each contributes 23 _________.
question
Researchers use twin and adoption studies to understand how much variation among individuals is due to genetic makeup and how much to environmental factors. Some studies compare the traits and behaviors of identical twins (same genes) and fraternal twins (different genes, as in any two siblings). They also compare adopted children with their adoptive and biological parents. Some studies compare traits and behaviors of twins raised together or separately.
answer
How do researchers use twin and adoption studies to learn about psychological principles?
question
differing genes
answer
Those studying the heritability of a trait try to determine how much of the person-to-person variation in that trait among members of a specific group is due to their differing _________
question
molecular genetics
answer
the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
question
evolutionary psychology
answer
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
question
natural selection
answer
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
question
mutation
answer
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.
question
social script
answer
culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.
question
Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand how our traits and behavior tendencies are shaped by natural selection, as genetic variations increasing the odds of reproducing and surviving in their particular environment are most likely to be passed on to future generations. Some variations arise from mutations (random errors in gene replication), others from new gene combinations at conception. Humans share a genetic legacy and are predisposed to behave in ways that promoted our ancestors' surviving and reproducing. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution is an organizing principle in biology. He anticipated today's application of evolutionary principles in psychology.
answer
12-1 How do evolutionary psychologists use natural selection to explain behavior tendencies?
question
Men tend to have a recreational view of sexual activity; women tend to have a relational view. Evolutionary psychologists reason that men's attraction to multiple healthy, fertile-appearing partners increases their chances of spreading their genes widely. Because women incubate and nurse babies, they increase their own and their children's chances of survival by searching for mates with the potential for long-term investment in their joint offspring.
answer
12-2 How might an evolutionary psychologist explain male-female differences in sexuality and mating preferences?
question
Critics argue that evolutionary psychologists start with an effect and work backward to an explanation. They also charge that evolutionary psychologists try to explain today's behavior based on decisions our distant ancestors made thousands of years ago, noting that a better, more immediate explanation takes learned social scripts into account. And, the critics wonder, does this kind of explanation absolve people from taking responsibility for their sexual behavior? Evolutionary psychologists respond that understanding our predispositions can help us overcome them. They recognize the importance of social and cultural influences, but they also cite the value of testable predictions based on evolutionary principles.
answer
12-3 What are the key criticisms of evolutionary explanations of human sexuality, and how do evolutionary psychologists respond?
question
culture
answer
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
question
norm
answer
an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior.
question
individualism
answer
giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.
question
collectivism
answer
giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly.
question
sex
answer
in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define males and females.
question
gender
answer
in psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define men and women.
question
aggression
answer
any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.
question
relational aggression
answer
an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing.
question
testosterone
answer
the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.
question
puberty
answer
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.
question
primary sex characteristics
answer
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.
question
secondary sex characteristics
answer
nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.
question
spermarche
answer
first ejaculation.
question
menarche
answer
the first menstrual period.
question
role
answer
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
question
gender role
answer
a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females.
question
gender identity
answer
our sense of being male, female, or a combination of the two.
question
social learning theory
answer
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.
question
gender typing
answer
the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
question
androgyny
answer
displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics.
question
transgender
answer
an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex.
question
disorder of sexual development
answer
an inherited condition that involves unusual development of sex chromosomes and anatomy.
question
X chromosome
answer
the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.
question
Y chromosome
answer
the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.
question
developmental psych
answer
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
question
zygote
answer
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.
question
embryo
answer
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
question
fetus
answer
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.
question
teratogens
answer
(literally, "monster maker") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.
question
fetal alcohol syndrome
answer
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features.
question
habituation
answer
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner
question
continuity; stages
answer
Developmental researchers who emphasize learning and experience are supporting ____________; those who emphasize biological maturation are supporting _________.
question
(1) Stage theory is supported by the work of Piaget (cognitive development), Kohlberg (moral development), and Erikson (psychosocial development), but it is challenged by findings that change is more gradual and less culturally universal than these theorists supposed. (2) Some traits, such as temperament, do exhibit remarkable stability across many years. But we do change in other ways, such as in our social attitudes.
answer
What findings in psychology support (1) the stage theory of development and (2) the idea of stability in personality across the life span? What findings challenge these ideas?
question
zygote; fetus; embryo
answer
The first two weeks of prenatal development is the period of the _________. The period of the _________ lasts from 9 weeks after conception until birth. The time between those two prenatal periods is considered the period of the _________.
question
maturation
answer
The biological growth process, called _________, explains why most children begin walking by about 12 to 15 months.
question
infant's habituation
answer
Developmental psychologists use repeated stimulation to test an infant's ____________ to a stimulus.
question
maturation
answer
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
question
cognitive development
answer
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
question
schema
answer
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
question
assimilate
answer
interpreting our new experiences in strongs of our existing schemas
question
accomodate
answer
In developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
question
Sensorimotor stage
answer
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
question
object permanence
answer
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceive
question
preoperational stage
answer
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
question
conservation
answer
the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
question
theory of mind
answer
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict
question
egocentric
answer
in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
question
Concrete operational stage
answer
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
question
formal operational stage
answer
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concept
question
Object permanence for the sensorimotor stage, pretend play for the preoperational stage, conservation for the concrete operational stage, and abstract logic for the formal operational stage.
answer
Object permanence, pretend play, conservation, and abstract logic are developmental milestones for which of Piaget's stages, respectively?
question
1. d, 2. b, 3. c, 4. c, 5. a, 6. b
answer
Match the correct cognitive developmental stage (a-d) to each developmental phenomenon (1-6).
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operational
Formal operational
Thinking about abstract concepts, such as "freedom."
Enjoying imaginary play (such as dress-up).
Understanding that physical properties stay the same even when objects change form.
Having the ability to reverse math operations.
Understanding that something is not gone for good when it disappears from sight, as when Mom "disappears" behind the shower curtain.
Having difficulty taking another's point of view (as when blocking someone's view of the TV)
question
Theory of mind focuses on our ability to understand our own and others' mental states. Those with autism spectrum disorder struggle with this ability.
answer
What does theory of mind have to do with autism spectrum disorder?
question
stranger anxiety
answer
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
question
attachment
answer
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
question
critical period
answer
an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development
question
imprinting
answer
the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life
question
Attachment is the normal process by which we form emotional ties with important others. Imprinting occurs only in certain animals that have a critical period very early in their development during which they must form their attachments, and they do so in an inflexible manner.
answer
What distinguishes imprinting from attachment?
question
basic trust
answer
according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
question
self concept
answer
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
question
authoritarian
answer
parents are coercive. They impose rules and expect obedience: "Don't interrupt." "Keep your room clean." "Don't stay out late or you'll be grounded." "Why? Because I said so.
question
permissive
answer
parents are unrestraining. They make few demands and use little punishment. They may be indifferent, unresponsive, or unwilling to set limits.
question
authoritative
answer
parents are confrontive. They are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules, but, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exception
question
cognition
answer
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
question
assimilation
answer
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
question
accommodation
answer
in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
question
sensorimotor stage
answer
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
question
object performance
answer
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
question
egocentrism
answer
in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
question
autism spectrum disorder
answer
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors
question
maturation
answer
The biological growth process, called _________, explains why most children begin walking by about 12 to 15 months.
question
adolescence
answer
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
question
identity
answer
our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
question
social identity
answer
the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships
question
intimacy
answer
in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood
question
emerging adulthood
answer
a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults
question
preconventional; postconventional; conventional
answer
According to Kohlberg, _______________ morality focuses on self-interest, _______________ morality focuses on self-defined ethical principles, and _______________ morality focuses on upholding laws and social rules
question
preconventional morality
answer
self-interest; obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards
before age 9
question
conventional morality
answer
upholds laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order
early adolescence
question
postconventional morality
answer
actions reflect belief in basic rights and self defined ethical principles
adolescence and beyond
question
1. g, 2. h, 3. c, 4. f, 5. e, 6. d, 7. a, 8. b
answer
Match the psychosocial development stage below (1-8) with the issue that Erikson believed we wrestle with at that stage (a-h).
1. Infancy a. Generativity vs. stagnation
2. Toddlerhood b. Integrity vs. despair
3. Preschool c. Initiative vs. guilt
4. Elementary school d. Intimacy vs. isolation
5. Adolescence e. Identity vs. role confusion
6. Young adulthood f. Competence vs. inferiority
7. Middle adulthood g. Trust vs. mistrust
8. Late adulthood h. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
question
menopause
answer
the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
question
cross-sectional study
answer
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
question
longitudinal study
answer
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
question
neurocognitive disorders (NCDs)
answer
acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. In older adults neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia
question
Alzheimer's disease
answer
a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with an onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities
question
social clock
answer
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
question
love; work
answer
Freud defined the healthy adult as one who is able to _________ and to _________
question
Challenges: decline of muscular strength, reaction times, stamina, sensory keenness, cardiac output, and immune system functioning. Risk of cognitive decline increases. Rewards: positive feelings tend to grow, negative emotions are less intense, and anger, stress, worry, and social-relationship problems decrease
answer
What are some of the most significant challenges and rewards of growing old?
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