MMW 13 Chang

the belief that Western culture was unique and predisposed to change and that the energy, or "European dynamism" is what led to the progression in the west while the rest of the world was in a perpetually paralyzed, unchanging state

The belief that the Western culture diffuses to the rest of the world in order for them to reach modernity. Western civilizations are more superior and more modernized. They influence the rest of the world to also adapt and enhance themselves.

The belief that cultures never move in time. The West is constantly progressing while the rest of the world (the East) merely pivots in place without moving ahead in time. Western places are where all the historical events occur. The East can only move ahead in time if they start to adopt Western ideas and institutions.

There was shift from polycentric globalism to European hegemony. Polycentric globalism refers to a local kingdom taking control of nearby lands.

David Landes- The Wealth & Poverty of Nations; Europe took advantage (pluck) of a discovery; Eurocentric success based on openness to tech./Indus. Rev. & success of culture Andre Gunder Frank- ReORIENT; Europe entered world econ. through extraction of Americas; backwards & a freerider; rose @ right time (luck) R. Bin Wong- China Transformed; China & Europe similar challenges in produc./resource allocation -> dvlp. diff. political econ.; Europe took on capitalism & nation-state -> advanced; China stable/Confucianism (luck)

At the height of the empire, expanded to Asia [except Russia and south (Vietnam, etc.)], Eastern Europe, Middle East, North Africa.

mongols used retreat as an effective strategy- might fake retreat to draw them towards them and then circled them Used favorite hunting tactics like the nerge= drawing the prey into a trap and then encircle them. Mongols were always outnumbered by their enemies. Relied on discipline, coordination, and strategies. Used banners and drums to coordinate attacks Effective use of siege-craft= recruited engineers and craftsmen from those people that they captured. Especially those with keen knowledge about how to create a siege on castles (catapults, scaling ladders, etc) Terror as a strategy of warfare=most effective. Mongols were small in numbers and couldn't afford to fight against everyone- used terror; made sure that the reputation for terror always preceded them

• Warming trend 800-1200 CE • Higher amts. rainfall -> sedentary agriculturalists can now survive in higher elevations by cultivating crops & increasing nomad carrying capacity • Higher conflict on borders!!!

Buffer zone=empty territory (not settled). Nomads could travel across and trade between different settled civilizations, establishing trade routes between China and the Mediterranean basin.

The aggressive Mongol leader responsible for the increase and prosperity of the Mongol empire at its height.

Nomads occasionally threatened sedentary societies with conquest. They did not want to rule them but only threatened as a way of extracting their wealth and resources.

Jurchens had established the Jin (Chin) Dynasty in northern China- these were who the mongols came across instead of traditional chinese rulers. They were unwilling to give up their resources to the Mongols because they believed that they were stronger. Fought and left North China devastated w/ no system in place.

Leader of the Turkish nomads who were also unwilling to make concessions to the Mongols. Ordered a Mongol official/ambassador be killed. He also decided to stop supplying resources and troops for the Mongols. For this very reason of defiance, a punitive mission was sent by Genghis Khan to destroy the place in 1219.

Wanted to turn all of northern China pastureland (get rid of farming). Luckily there was a Chinese official who convinced him that it would be stupid and crazy.

Ogedaei Khan's prime minister. Set up proper administration in China and proposed an end to tax farming. Proposed more reasonable and progressive tax rates. Defeated Jakhud tribe, creation of Mongol postal system, digging of wells to open new pastures, & stationing of troops in sedentary regions.

Tax farming is the process of assigning the responsibility for tax revenue collection to private citizens or groups. Central Asian Muslims who were members of trading corporations (ortakh) extracted the revenue in the Mongolian empire. System suffered when tax collectors abused their power.

Kyuk Khan, ruler of Mongols in 1246 for a short time, responded to the Pope's letter (which demanded the conversion of Mongols to Christianity) saying that Christians have no right to make demands, and wanted tribute to show their loyalty.

Many religions in Mongol empire, showing their religious tolerance (Muslim's as officials in Chinese court), but would not let any religion become too powerful.

Mongol empire was focused on trade networks and the safety of its merchants. For the first time, Asian and European lands were directly linked, as long-distance traveling was now safe.

Grandson of Ghangis Khan who ruled the Yuan Dynasty of the 4 khanates. Also the ruler of the Great Khanate in Mongolian heartland and in China.He was very effective in rebuilding the empire with strong agricultural bases.

The favorite wife of Khubilai Khan, a Nestorian Christian. Helped advise Khubilai on some policies.

-Division of power -> effective administration in vast empire! - Ilkans in Persia (Hulegu) - The Golden Horde in Russia (Berke)-allied with muslims (Khubilai did not trust Muslims after Golden Horde attacked him). - Khanate of Chagatai in original heartland of the Mongols - Great Khanate in Mongolia/China (Khubilai)

Arigh Boke thought that Khubilai was too sympathetic towards Chinese influence and challenged Khubilai with the help of Golden Horde. It was a costly and lengthy campaign. Ilkans supported Khubilai. Khubilai won by cutting off support of resources to the north in order to defeat his enemies. His victory made him realize that in order for him to keep power, he would have to govern the Chinese effectively and efficiently.

-Response to the economic recovery plan set out under Khubilai. -Created to support the peasants, abolish tax farming, and give farmers extra incentives like grain. -Prevented Mongols from turning farmland into pastures. -SIGNALED BREAK FROM INITIAL MONGOL BEHAVIOR!!! TAX -> STIMULATION OF AGRICULTURE!

-Muslim-run merchant associations - Financial middle men: Mongol elite would provide funds to ortakhs @ low interest -> ortakhs would loan $ to lower merchants/Chinese farmers = ortakhs serving as financial intermediates b/t Mongol elite & general population; this deflected criticism of "money lenders" on Mongol elites & placed it on the ortakhs

-Made it much more widely circulated. -They used mulberry tree bark for the paper currency -Every merchant who wanted to trade in china in this mongol realm had to trade their gold and silver or whatever commodity they had for the paper currency -Disciplined policies & regulations to prevent inflation

-Postal stations providing unity and boosting commerce - These stations were set roughly 25 miles apart and at each station they had 200- 400 fresh horses at the ready -Also site of mongol garrisons- mongol forces that patrolled the roads and if there were any news of a raid they would act quickly and chase them down -This system was so efficient that the custom they had was that each horse had a bell to let the next station know that they were coming so that there was minimum lag time -Postal stations also served as hostiles for rest with comfort and security

-Also known as the modern Beijing. -Khubilai chose the location in the north because he would be able to keep an eye on the original pastureland and on the farmlands. -He was able to find his delicate balance in his DUAL IDENTITY via the construction of his palace located in the capital. -It contained a huge backyard garden and large luxurious statues like the phoenix and dragon. -Brought together Mongol and Chinese culture.

-Emperor of the Yuan dynasty of Chinese -Great Khan of Mongols

- Mongols: political, warrior, and social elite - Semuren: Mongol allies such as the Turks, Syrians, and Persians (officials in China) - Hanren: The northern Chinese, Mongols had greater affinity towards them b/c of their similar appearances - Nanren: Southern Chinese, which had 80% of the population. They had more distinguished features (shorter and darker, racially discriminated)

He was the finance czar from 1262 to 1282. Increased # of registered households for taxation & established and reinforced more state monopolies on commodities such as tea/vinegar. Ahmad did such a good job that he incurred the wrath of many Chinese government officials. He also did a very good job of setting up new tax payers that taxes increased by a hundred fold. Ended up being assassinated by court counterparts.

Imposed by Finance Minister Ahmad in order to fund public projects & war for the khan.

Over-spending by Khublai and his successor caused them to resort to high taxes and extensive state monopolization of major sectors of the economy (such as salt, iron, sugar, porcelain, tea, vinegar, alcohol) to fund their extravagant spending and military campaigns, which became a major burden on the Chinese economy

Anointed to be the governor of strategic territory of Yunnan. This was important because a Muslim governor could facilitate migration of Muslims coming in from the west. He was a competent governor who introduced irrigation to the region, civilized the educated the population, did not impose his Muslim beliefs on the natives, and sinicized the natives using Confucianism.

Persian astronomer who helped the Chinese develop a more accurate calendar. (Muslim contributions)

-Marco Polo's father Niccolo and his uncle Maffeo were among the first Europeans the visit China (happened during Khublai Khan's reign). When they returned, they brought Marco, who Kublai took a liking too, allowing him to pursue mercantile interests and sent him on numerous diplomatic missions. -Presence of them reflected image of khan's dedication globalization/prestige to the court & Chinese

Threat of Islamic power felt politically/militarily/religiously by Muslim advisors -Anti Muslim decrees (jasaghs) implemented banning Muslims laws -Led to the decline in commerce b/c of facing of unwelcome climate towards Muslims in the trading sphere -Demonstrates delicate balance as Mongols as minority rulers ruling over Chinese majority

A Christian Official in the Yuan Court, Ai-hseueh instigated anti-Muslim sentiment. Accused of inciting slave and laborers in Muslim households to bring false charges against their masters. Falsely accused Muslim leader Maulana Burhan al-Din Bukhai (of China) of a crime and had him exiled.

There was prohibition of circumcision and cruel method of slaughtering sheep.

Beginning in 1320s -Key reasons!!!: Bubonic Plague; financial crisis b/c of unsuccessful expeditions; ongoing Chinese contempt of being ruled by Mongols

Ruled China from 1402-1424 during the Ming Dynasty. Promoted naval expansion and dispatched Zheng He

- Arab and Mongol ancestry - Family lived in Yunnan province - He wanted to go to Mecca for the sacred pilgrimage but couldn't because he was a eunuch -Useful status as an outsider

Eunuchs, castrated men, served as advisers and other high positions in the Ming court. They were given these positions as they would not produce offspring to take their place, and would not be distracted by womanly affairs.

Size - 300 ships - 28,000 soldiers/sailors (the size of some land armies in nearby countries). - The largest was 400 feet in length, weighed as much as 3000 tons and had 9 masts Purposes - Send them out on expeditions - Had a total of 7 grand expeditions, 6 of them during the reign of Yongle - Convenient excuse at the time. They "needed" to explore the region and find an imposed emperor. - They also wanted to increase Chinese presence in the Pacific and Indian Ocean regions -Military: securing trade routes and flow of tributes to China. Had to suppress piracy and their activities. -Cultural: extending cultural embassies meant increasing Ming Dynasty's; centered on tributary system -Commercial: demonstrating the generosity and wealth of the Ming. They didn't need anything else but only traded with people as an act of generosity. -Political: extending China's tributary system. They didn't want to annex territories but just to have influence over local politics.

-Chinese goddess/divinity of good fortune and protected people on their travels -Deity that sailors prayed to & left inscriptions of what sailors prayed for/challenges faced -Zheng-Hu= Muslim yet inscribed -> dual worship!

By being imposing, other empires would bring pay tribute to intimidate just so that they wouldn't attack them. Pay and protect system.

in one of the expeditions, giraffes were brought back and the Chinese thought they were mythical creatures because of their long necks

feared pirate who was defeated by Zheng He. became an admiral for the Chinese government

Yongle dispatched Zheng He to capture Suganla. Zheng He captured and presented Suganla which pleased the king of Sumendala so he paid tribute to China as a result and became a tributary state

The son of the fisherman who married Sumendala's wife. Captured by Zheng He's soldiers because he fled from Sumendala

-Profound geopolitical impact t/o S.E. Asia & Indian Ocean - "Carrot" is opportunity for trade; Chinese commodities such as silk/trade to entice to become tributes - "Stick" are the troops. All the ships were armed with troops and cannons. - Mongols were able to acquire 47 tributary states from the 7 expeditions

King of Malacca was Manlajia. Paid tribute to the Ming court after Zheng He captured the false king (Suganla)

-After expelling the Portuguese the English were allowed into the capitol Isfahan to do trade. -Shah Abbas in power, alliances w/ Europeans -In exchange for weapons from British -> gave access to Hormuz -Beginning of British presence in Indian Ocean

-Following the death of Emperor Yongle, Confucian traditionalists against maritime expeditions put expansionism/expeditions to a halt -The expeditions were stopped and the lumber from these ships were all given to people of a particular region to be used for firewood to overcome the harsh winter.

-China pulled back from economic policies & invested little in maritime technology, withdrew from the Indian Ocean network which created a huge power vacuum. -The Portuguese entered into China and created their own monopolies.

-The belief that Africa was still in an isolated state at that time where there was none or few development. -Shaped by 19th century European imperialist imagination (denial of coevalness & cultural diffusion theory)

Geographic - Coastal region of East Africa; from Mogadishu in north Africa to Kilwa in south Africa Linguistic (Kiswahili) - Dialects of Bantu w/ Arabic words -> HYBRID LANGUAGE Cultural- Conversions to Islam; hybrid, porous identities of faith Ethnic composition - Mix of African, Arab, Persian, and Gujarati ethnicities

Shirazi rulers claimed origins in Iran. (Swahili coast line)****

-Similar to West Africa, Islam wasn't enforced, but adopted. People still believed in traditional African deities. -Intermarriages w/ Arab merchants, conversions in order to reap benefits of Muslim trading networks

Macrocosmic- see themselves in a much larger diverse network, rather than a single village.

-"littoral" identity= coastal identity. More of a mindset than a geographical place. -They have no rigid boundaries or identities, (geographical, commerce, religion, language).

Mogadishu is a trading town on the Swahili Coast. The sultan treats visitors with great hospitality. Winds blew ships in one direction towards Swahili coast. Large ships would sail to redistribution centers such as Mogadishu. Warehouses would hold goods (esp. from the India & Persia), and give them to smaller boats to distribute along the coast.

-Busy trading state and was a large exporter of gold/ivory -Proximity to mouth of Zambezi River allowed for traders to ride monsoon winds -Epitome of niche trade efficiency

-Trade that came in from the interior part of Africa used this river. (Ivory, slave trade) -Used the river helped reach the Swahili coast.

Allowed kings to forge alliances with local leaders and profit from trade.

Indians traded refined textiles with Gujarat. India received ivory and Hindu idols.

-Monsoon winds affected the trade routes between the Swahili and those that traded with them -Specific windows for when merchants can sail -> encourage different groups to improvise on this niche trade/ who controls what/takes responsibility for this system -> clockwork

role of many centers in trade. relates to redistribution centers (mogadishu)

Mainly, a giant salt trade market. Packs of oxen carrying salt were taken through the desert. It was slow and tedious for the traders. Oxen were easily worn out.

Discovery of camels for transportation by the Berber nomads. Traveled twice as far and twice as fast as the oxen. Averaged 20 miles a day. Required little water, and had protective evolutions (such as closed nostrils, eyelid coverings).

-Nomads responsible for overseeing trade, populated much of N. Africa -Instrumental for trans-Saharan trade b/t Medd.-Sahel regions (i.e. Timbuktu, Kumi-Saleh) -First to domesticate camels

Active trade network between Sub-Saharan Africa and Mediterranean region.

-Had a strategic location of being close to the Berbers (b/t Sahara & Niger Valleys) -Access to horses lead from a military to a political advantage -Conduit of trade between desert salt mines at Taghaza (Western Sahara) and gold fields of Banbuk (Upper Senegal River).

The founders of the ancient empire of Ghana. Had early contract w/ Berbers who gave them iron tools, weapons, horses First group of people to embrace Islam in sub-Saharan Africa.

Dual layout of city. Half for Muslims, other half for the king. Paganism was still occurring within the city. By converting pagans to Islam, it allowed them access into city social life and more commercial freedom.

Islam wasn't enforced, the kings still allowed the worship of traditional African deities. Islam was favored though

West Sahara important to the emergence of the Trans-Saharan trade, salt was an important commodity.

Upper Senegal River miners of the fields were not pushed to convert to Islam due to the wealth they brought in for Ghana.

Al-Bakri explores the political and religious climate of Ghana. Viewing Muslims in Ghana are superior than other non-muslim through some anecdotes. He also talks about the King of Malal was converted to Muslim after his prayer to God worked. In a word, Bakri gives a bias arguement that Islam is dominating and well accepted even in Africa.

13th century Society was self-sustaining but ruling family was largely dependent on trade -> shift of power!

Rise of the Almoravids following the decline of Ghana Imposed Islam on those in the region More zealous & militant

from 13th to the 14th century. Was founded by the Almoravids.

chiefs of clan converted to Islam as early as the 11th century.

Al-Musulamni ("the Muslim") was king of Malal (or a chief of the Mandike kingdom) and had a Muslim guest who convinced him to convert to Islam so it would pour much needed rain.

under Mansa Musa

(1312-1337) Ruler of the Mali Empire, Interested in exploring the seas.

Mansa Musa's pilgrimage was an example of extravagance exhibited by the Mali Empire. Musa had caravans of gold and along his journey to Mecca would demonstrate the Islamic ideal of piety and generosity by giving it away to others.

At first Mansa Musa is reluctant to meet with the sultan but then shows respect to God by bowing down

Mansa Musa wanted Timbuktu to be the center of learning and knowledge. He returned from his pilgrimage with scholars, architects, poets, and scientists from the Islamic realm.

Islamic cartographers, demonstrated the incredible wealth found in Africa. African sovereign w/ scepter= illustration of power, chunk of gold Not a dark, primitive world but a place w/ a powerful king & generous wealth

Humble beginnings as a buffer state between Seljunks and the Byzantines in the 13th century. (small nomadic group of Turkish warriors) Served as mercenaries for powerful neighbors in exchange for territorial benefits to expand Ottoman army

Term "Ottoman" derived from Osman Bey, as founder of the Ottoman dynasty (lasted 1289-1923). Osman (was "Bey" or chief) and his semi-nomadic Turk tribesman sought to become "ghazi" or Muslim religious Warriors.

Osman Bay exploited rivalry as a mercenary for both empires. Built an extensive power base and firstly defeated the Seljuks, then the Byzantine.

led Ottoman conquest through Asia-minor and the Balkans (Serbia, Albania, Bulgaria) and conquered Constantinople. Pushed far into Europe, stopping against the Hena empire.

Mehmet II's conquest led to the sacking of Constantinople and renaming of the city to Istanbul.(city was not officially renamed, it was a process and an influence of speech that changed the name)

changed the laws and organization of the Ottoman Empire to adapt legislation to a rapidly changing and expanding empire. He was careful not to touch the basics of Islam but only extend his power where he could, mainly, in criminal justice and taxation.

Power peaked with Suleiman the Magnificent, Middle East, East Europe, North Africa conquered. Massive multilingual, multinational empire.

made several observations about Suleiman's bureaucracy in 1529. Noticed an anti-aristocratic ethos. Instead based off of merit and honor

Ottomans borrowed upon the Persian elaboration of the Islamic social order to reward people whose loyalty and allegiance are to the sultan. Based off of Merit rather than lineage.

provincial slave levy dating to 1395 to supply "ghulams" the Ottoman Empire trained boys who were taken from Christian families, converted to Islam, and enrolled in one of the four royal institutions: the Palace, the Scribes, the Religious and the Military (Janissary).

Origin - Hired slave soldiers to defend the sultanate. Believed in that by raising lower class to work for the sultan, through providing luxury, they would be personally loyal to him. Inner vs. Outer Service - Inner service Janissaries were the sultan's closest confidences. Noted to have unquestionable loyalty to the sultan and a high physical prowess. Outer service Janissaries were sent out as governors of provinces. Grand Vizier - 2nd in position to the sultanate. Highest social status. Not always of Muslim origin.

As the prime minister of the king, with absolute power of attorney and, in principle, can only be disassembled by the king himself.*

administrative and tax collecting grants handed out by the sultan. Charged with administrative duties upon collecting.

"Millet" refers to the local religious communities in the Ottoman Empire. Religious and ethnic backgrounds were not a prerequisite for timar grants. Protected dhimmi subjects and held high religious tolerance.

People of the book -> dhimmis, Christians and Jews mainly. Received protection and tolerance to practice and preach within the Ottoman Empire.

founder of the Safavid Empire (Shi'a) at age 14. seen as a return of the 12th Imam. At 18, led a group of people to capture the city of Tabuites in Iran.

the adopted military wing of Sufi Islam by Ismail. This was the mindset by which his army conquered. Wanted zealous, Islamic utopia

Ismail descended from a 13th century Sufi leader - Safi al-Din who was part of a sect called the Twelvers. Safavid's believed in Ismail as the return of the 12th Mahdi, "the guided one". Sufi belief extends to the mystical transmission of the souls of past prophets.

Prophets of Sufi Islam - divinely chosen. All the past 11 believed in the coming of the 12th. Messiah figure who will return & save the world

sent a letter to Ismail declaring military action would be sent against the Safavid empire since they intended to spread Sufi/Shi'ite ideology. Ottoman's cast themselves as the defender of true Islam. Writes that Isma'il is a blasphemer, uses the authority of the ulamma & Quran to discredit him

(1514) Decisive battle in which the Ottoman empire won over the Safavid Empire. The Ottomans used firearms while the Safavids refused because it was "unreliable" Safavid power shifted east in order to reconsolidate forces

the Battle of Chaldiran was a disruption to the trade link from the Medditerranean through the Middle East, forcing the Safavids to ally with Europeans in order to find a new maritime route

Safavid consolidation under Shah Abbas I. Conquered the Uzbeks to the east and kept stalemates against the Ottoman empire. Increased use of gunpowder weapons and received military assistance from Europeans which helped them become victorious.

Shah Abbas I as a ruler in the Machiavellian vein. Pragmatic - not ideologue. Always knew what the people thought of him. Well versed in theology. Mingled openly with the public and was feared. Maipulation of his public image- authority visible, furgal with food, modest in clothing

Shah Abbas allied with European armies to fight against the Ottoman army and the Portuguese. Europeans sold weapons to both the Safavids and the Ottomans in order to gain priviledges to their ports

Instituted by Abbas I, army made of the "riffraff" of society (slaves, prisoners..) replaced the ineffective Quzilbash and remained loyal because they were taken care of. Also called "slaves of the royal household"

Roman Catholics are true Christians while the English are false Christians

new capital of the Safavids. Promoted as a cosmopolitan center of trade. Secured all trade routes within the Safavid realm and expelled all Portuguese and allowed British in.

allowed into new capital Isfahan to do trade after expelling the Portugeuse.

Doctrine which demonstrated changes in Safavid policies, religion shifted from radicalism to conservative ideology in order to establish stability in a sedentary society.

Muslim prejudice term for the Hinduism religion. Found the religion keeping to itself to be interesting. Believed the practitioners to be naturally aloof (secretive of beliefs, Muslims used to sharing faith)

First prominent Muslim foundation in North India.

first sultan in North India. (1293-1316; ruled from). Policy of oppressing Hindu subjects through 50% taxation.

Refering to the 50% taxation placed on non-Muslims, but in this case, on Hindus. Placed by Aurangzeb encourage conversion to Islam.

evidence of repressive policy of the sultan towards Hindus, wanted to empty the city of Delhi - refugees migrated to Dawlat Abad

Policy of desecration under Ala-ud-din Khalji. Built Muslim mosques over them. Inside the mosque it was required to step on the Hindu deities before entering.

Babur was the founder. He conquered lands that stretched from Kabul through the Punjab to the borders of Bengal. Most subjects were Hindu.

Gave autonomy to Hindu princes and chieftain and abolished the jizya taxation. Centralized administration through provincial ministries.

Named by Akbar, merged the foundations of both Shi'ite and Sunni Islam, Hinduism, and Zoroastrianism. Strictly monotheistic. Angered the Muslim advisors.

Wrote opposition to Akbar's policy of religious tolerance. Shi'ite leader favoring repression on Hindus.

Grandson of Akbar. Reverted to the jizya and desecrated Hindu temples.

Abu Abdulla Muhammad Ibn-Battuta in Tangiers, Morocco (1304 CE). Trained as an Islamic scholar and occasionally served as a judge, a qadi. Perfect person to judge the Islamic law. Traveled to Mali

Theories regarding rise of the West, Polycentric Globalism, Cultural syncretism Speaker: -Michael N. Pearson Subject: Macrocosmic world in Swahili coast Occasion: Great harbors and desirable local products in the east coast of Africa attracts most of the attention from Muslim merchants. Purpose: break the Eurocentric view of "Dark Continent"-the belief that Africa was still in an isolated state at that time where there was none or few development. Showing the vitality of a global trading network before the European dominance to the sea Parochial- Swahili was too local church orientated. Polycentric Globalism. Wanted not local belief, but universal belief. General Time Period: 10th century

Religious Pluralism Speaker: -Quatert Subject: -Religious tolerance in the Ottoman Empire Occasion: -Fled to Ottoman Empire as they were more tolerant. Purpose: -Showed how Muslims in the Ottoman Empire were tolerant of other religions. -Convinced other religions to go to Muslim courts, implying benefits of being Muslim. -Can contrast to the Muslim empire in India who were not tolerant of other religions. General Time Period: -1700 - 1922

Polycentric Globalism Speaker: -Al-Umari Subject: -Al-Umari tells Mansa Musa bow before the sultan of Egypt Occasion: -Mansa Musa passes through Egypt during his pilgrimage and meets the Mamluk Sultan Purpose: -Shows that Mansa Musa was devoted and respected God -Shows foreigners were tied by Islam General Time Period: -1320s Mansa Musa kisses the ground in front of other Sultan.

Religion doesn't always coincide with Politics, concessions have to be made; Cultural syncretism Speaker: -Ahmad (Muslim financial advisor to Khublai Khan) Subject: -Reversal of Anti-Muslim edicts Occasion: -Muslim merchants stopped coming into the Yuan Empire Purpose: -Ahmad pleaded to Khublai Khan to reverse anti-Muslim edicts because it had caused a significant decrease in incoming Muslim merchants General Time Period: -1280-1287

The key theme is the Degree of Religious Pluralism; cultural syncretism Speaker: -The Kazi (Qadi) Subject: -Oppression of Hindus Occasion: -The Sultan is questioning the Kazi about matters on religion and Hindus and their status as "payers of tribute or givers of tribute". Purpose: -It was the duty of Muslim to convert people to Islam or to let them die by the sword. However, Hindus made up a large portion of the revenue for this area so a ruler would be stuck between converting their religion (which wouldn't happen) or bettering their kingdom. Rather than kill the Hindus, they would punish Hindus harshly through rough restrictions and beating, imprisonment, etc. so as to keep them down and to keep them from rebelling. They also heavily taxed the Hindu population, not allowing them to hold property, and keeping them in poverty as to prove their submissiveness. -Shows that religion is not so black and white, even the most devout followers face conflict. General Time Period: -133th to 14th century

Geopolitical impact Speaker: -Zheng He Subject: Zheng He's expedition to travel and unite places with China. Occasion: Zheng He records his actions of capturing the false king Suganla, pillaging and invading a country Purpose: Zheng He describes his capture of the rebels, but says they "owe it the silent aid of the goddess." Zheng He puts much pride into the Daoist godess called the Celestial Spouse, and attributes his victories, well-being, and success of his missions to this goddess. In the way he writes his passages, he over exemplifies the greatness of China, China's generosity, and China's legal system. Zheng He makes his Goddess and his Country sound perfect as to show anyone who reads his work would see the Celestial Sprite and China in the same light. General Time Period: 15th century