APES PACKET REVIEW

One plates moves under another and sinks into Earth's mantle. A trench may be formed

One plate is pushed down and melted as molten material/ magma rises to the surface near the zone

Coast of Asia (Philippines, Ryukyu, Japan, Kuril, and Aleutian)

The Rockies (North America), The Andes (South America), The Alps (Europe), and The Himalayas (Asia)

Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Southwest Indian Ridge, Central Indian Ridge, Southeast Indian Ridge, Pacific Antarctic Ridge, East Pacific Ridge, and Juan de Fuca Ridge (near Canada and California)

The tilt of the Earth causes summer sun to become more direct in the Northern hemisphere during summer months leading to warmer temperatures. In the winter, the sun is more indirect as the Earth's tilt points away. The opposite is true in the Southern Hemisphere where warmest temperatures are in Dec.

Direct sun warms the air, causing it to rise. As it rises, the altitude causes the temperature to fall. The cooler air becomes more dense forming condensation and eventually precipitation. The cold, dry air will sink; creating a convection current.

0 degrees latitude

66.5 degrees North

66.5 degrees South

23.5 degrees North

23.5 degrees south

North of the equator

south of the equator

Troposphere: At first Temperature decreases as Altitude increases Stratosphere: Then temperature increases as altitude increases Mesosphere: Temperature decreases as Altitude increases Thermosphere- Exosphere: Temperature increases

troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere

Troposphere

Stratosphere

dry region on side of mountain that is sheltered from wind 1. Moist warm air blows onshore 2. As air rises over mountain it cools causing moisture to condense and fall as precipitation 3. Dry air descends and warns promoting evaporation

As air rises and condenses, it causes precipitation leading to forested regions (trees require more water so you find them in regions with higher precipitation. Deserts typically form at 30 degrees because the dry air sinks there and little water is available to support plant life. This repeats itself with rain at 60 and dry biomes at 90. The temperature is influenced by direct sun so it's hot at the equator and colder at the poles.

Convection currents form in the ocean just as they do with the atmosphere. Warmer water rises (upwelling) and cold water sinks creating currents. Salt in the water makes it more dense, similar to temperature. Cold arctic regions draw large quantities of CO2 from the atmosphere and draws it down to deep ocean. Therefore, CO2 is highest concentration within sinking currents.

el nino southern oscillation; Tropical eastern pacific

Normal conditions: northward flowing currents bring cold water from the Southern Pacific up to South America's tropical west coast. Upwelling occurs along coast of Peru. Along the equator trade winds cause the upwellings to draw deeper ocean water to the surface to cool leading to warmer sea surface in the western Pacific compared to the Eastern Pacific. ElNino: Pressure systems shift leading to little to no upwellings. The cold water weakens or disappears completely causing warm water in Central and Eastern Pacific as well as in the west; leading to more rainfall events.

71% - covered with water 96.5% - saltwater 1.7% - frozen 2.5% - available

Evaporation of water off plants. This water is an important source of water to determine climate.

watershed includes all the area of land water travels across on its way to a body of water. It can move via percolation/infiltration and/or surface runoff. The route the water takes determines the water quality. Surface runoff tends to pick up more sediment, nutrients and pollution depending on the land use. The more development and impervious surfaces (paved land) creates more pollution and runoff, typically. The more infiltration and percolation leads to cleaner water since the ground/rock can filter it. This is more common in natural settings, especially those with plants.

lack of water; The Colorado river basin has many dams and irrigation canals that draw water from the river. This creates water shortages and even prevents the river from reaching the ocean. Since the Colorado river moves through arid portions of the country, there is greater pressures for water rights and use.

In the Midwest; Large aquifer spans many Midwestern states within the breadbasket. The water from the aquifer is being withdrawn faster than it can recharge- causes subsidence (collapse of land/sink holes) and water shortages.

Large sea in the middle east that supported a huge fishing industry until the 1960s. In the arid region, farmers began to grow cotton monocultures that overdrew large amounts of water from the sea for irrigation leading to salinization. Today the sea is only 10% of its original size; biodiversity is low- food webs have crashed- and diseases in the region are rampant due to lack of freshwater and food security

Ecosystem service- Include all the benefits humans gain from healthy ecosystems- ecosystem services are food production, water security, control of climate and disease and nutrients available for food. They are benefits the environment gives us for survival. Freshwater is essential for all living organisms making it an ecosystem service. Economic service- economic services are resources from the environment that humans can use for business; to make money. Some water sources are commons but many have private rights and/or are bottled for sale or economically support industry such as hydroelectric dams, irrigation canals or reservoirs. Global security issue- Water is unevenly distributed throughout the world. Some locations have it in excess and others have too little. Many arid countries; especially those with high rates of poverty have poor water security. The water may be contaminated with pathogens and/or too far or too limited to support the population. Natural capital- the world's stocks of all the natural assets in the geology, soil, air, water, living organisms, that provide services to support human life. Water is a valuable resource and rights to water or maintaining water quality so it can be used can be complicate the amount of water that can be used

drip irrigation; delivers water directly to plants to reduce surface runoff or evaporation.

consumer saving strategies (such as turning off water when brushing; taking shorter showers and only running dishwashers/laundry when full), harvesting rainwater in barrels for grass/plants; auditing fixtures in homes for leaks; reducing use if irrigation by planting native plants/xeriscaping, installing low water demand toilets, faucets and showerheads.

reducing energy use in the municipality will require the power plant to generate less

use systems that recycle water for repeated use; cooling towers to reduce evaporation; modify equipment to reduce water consumption, used recycled materials which use less water to purify the materials

settles overtime creating layers. Upper layers apply pressure to lower layers pressing them into sheets/stratified rock= sedimentary rock. As sedimentary rock gets pushed deeper it heats up. The heat and pressure melts and molds it into metamorphic rock. Magma and molten rock reaches the surface such as a volcanic eruption and cools forming igneous rock.

Weathering is the breakdown of rock into soil by a physical/mechanical force (such as tree roots or freezing/thawing cycles), chemical reaction (such as through oxidation or acids). Erosion is the movement of rocks and soils often caused by wind or water.

Elluviation: layer B- mineral horizon that accumulates salts, clay and/or iron; often exposed due to erosion or development. Top soil: A- Mineral horizon that forms at the surface; contains the most nutrient rich soil due to decomposition at the surface. Can experience leaching of nutrients to clay horizons below. Parent material: C- material that hasn't had exposure to weathering Sub soil: B Leaf litter O: organic material such as leaf litter exist at surface; may cover topsoil.

Proteins, lipids (fats) and carbs (glucose)

Water oxygen and nitrogen oxides

clay, silt, sand

Conventional tilling practices harvests the crops by removing the entire plant from the soil; can expose soil and remove plants which anchor it. Planting crops in rows down hillsides creates gullies that allow soil to move via water. Instead: Intercropping, contour planting, strip cropping, polyculture, shelter belts, crop rotation, no-till or conservation tillage

Moving soil to build homes/businesses exposes subsoil and removes topsoil; often sits disturbed for long periods to time leading to erosion; urban areas also have more impervious surfaces (paved) which can carry soil INSTEAD: Using porous pavement; Avoiding development on flood plains, urban gardens; phytoremediation (using plants to control/filter water); rooftop gardens; use filters or traps to prevent soil from entering storm drains

Rivers are dredged (dug deeper), straightened, contained by levees (hills that are built along flood plains) and currents are manipulated by dikes that prevent sediment to build up along river edges; makes water swifter and carries more sediment downstream to the mouth of the river. Instead: Building levees outside perimeter of flood plains to preserve flood plains; using parks and agriculture for flood plains; stabilize banks of rivers by planting or preserving forests and grasses (maintain a riparian zone);

Removing forests by clear cutting or burning exposes soil; No tree root systems to anchor the soil Instead: sustainable forestry practices; avoid clear cutting; selective logging thins the forest; only removing the most valuable/useful tree species;

surface mining (especially mountaintop removal); large amounts of rock and soil are moved and deposited along hillsides (tailings); these piles can erode easily down the mountain. Instead: use of covers that hold back soil such as degradable covers or vegetation; use of terraces to minimize slopes; shelterbelt

Desertification- the loss of nutrients in the soil due to overuse; caused often by overgrazing; which removes plants and organic matter from surface that would have decomposed and nourished the soil; also can be caused by monocultures; too many plantings of the same type of crops over many growing seasons removes nutrients from soil; often plants such as corn can be "nutrient hungry" drawing too much of a nutrient from the soil and never replacing it. Salinization- Often due to over-irrigation in arid regions; Overdrawing water from a water source can cause salts to leach up from the subsoil and contaminate water; hinders plant growth

Population is a group of like species that live in the same habitat (biotic factors only). Community is a collection of all living (biotic) organisms in every trophic level who live in the same habitat. Ecosystem is the only level in this listing that includes abiotic and biotic factors. It includes all living organisms in a habitat and the land, water and air resources that make up their environment.

ecological niche is the combination of all behaviors that an organism uses to decrease competition and increase access to resources, leading to its survival. Factors include but are not limited to: feeding behaviors- trophic level, interactions with others species (such as mutualism, commensalism, parasitism), predation behaviors, mating behaviors, migration, hibernation, etc.

when species feed in a separate territory or region to avoid competition. For example, different species of birds may feed on different levels or heights of a plant.

Range of tolerance represents the gap of acceptable conditions the species will feed, live, migrate to. Defines the upper and lower limits where a species cannot survive. These might be physical ranges of territory, preferred temperatures, water availability, etc. Often competing species will have ranges that do not overlap in order to avoid competition or organisms with very wide ranges adapt that way to increase their options.

Forest fragmentation reduces the range organisms have to migrate, it reduces the availability of nutrients and resources for the food web. It also changes many abiotic factors- less shade/more sun changes the types of plants that grow on the edges of forests, essentially changing the types of primary producers in the forest, its temperature and can affect water and soil quality with increased erosion and sedimentation. Fragmented forests often have more small, opportunist species and pests which can lead to the spread of disease- for example lyme disease is found in higher rates in fragmented ecosystems due to the increase of rodents who have little to no predators. (The rodent predators need larger territory).

ecosystem biodiversity is a variety of microecosystems or habitats for organisms to occupy- more opportunity for specialization and resource partitioning;

Biome near the equator with warm temperatures, wet weather, and lush plant growth

forest in a temperate region, characterized by trees that drop their leaves annually

Characterized by coniferous forests; has a subarctic continental climate with very large temperature range between seasons, but the long and cold winter is the dominant feature.

grasses and scattered trees adapted to a tropical wet and dry climate

Short and tall grasses adapted to cool climates

a vast treeless plain in the arctic regions between the ice cap and the tree line

An extremely dry area with little water and few plants

Convection cells for when warm air rises and condenses in the upper atmosphere; the cold air becomes more dense leading to precipitation. As it cools it sinks and moves across the land; this dry cell of air causes drier climates. It evaporates moisture from land and gains water, heating and then rises again. This process repeats itself across the globe. Biomes near the equator receive more direct sunlight and have higher atmospheric temperatures than those at the poles who receive indirect sun and lower temperatures.

Important filters of river water; when water floods or flows through wetlands, the sediment and pollution is filtered by the trees and grasses and then returns to the stream through percolation through the soil (phytoremediation) and Important nesting sites for animals of the riparian zone; large amount of biodiversity; plants provide protection and cover for many organisms

Littoral Zone and Limnetic Zone Euphotic Zone Benthic Zone

6CO2 + 6H2O ------> C6H12O6 + 6O2

C6H12O6 + 6O2 --→ 6CO2 + 6H20 + Energy

The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as system's mass cannot change, so quantity cannot be added nor removed. Hence, the quantity of mass is conserved over time. Therefore, when carbon is converted- say from glucose to carbon dioxide the total mass is never lost but changes state

Natural capital is all the world's stocks or resources that are available to make life possible. Humans, being organisms, need resources for survival (and take more than that for comfort or collection). This is classified as ecosystem services and include lumbar, minerals, ore, water, food, etc. The more biodiversity= the more variety of quality resources available for us.

Natural selection is the process of fit organisms surviving longer and obtaining resources needed for survival. With survival comes opportunity for reproduction and more offspring. The offspring inherit the fit genes and the cycle repeats. Overtime, the number of organisms with that fit gene are majority of the population leading to evolution. The more biodiversity, the greater the gene pool. Variety within the genetic makeup allow species to have better ability to withstand sickness and adapt to change, making a stronger population.

biogeography. (Isolated populations without gene flow will evolve in different ways in response to their unique environments. The closer the island is to the mainland, the greater species richness it'll have.

Biodiversity and the protection of forest habitats in an important factor of stable and productive ecosystems. Preservation of forest leads to greater species richness and species eveness, cleans the air and water through filtration and provides humans with economic services such as food, lumber, and fuel. By investing money to protect the bamboo habitat, you would protect your forest investment while protecting the Panda populations as well. The benefits of this strategy would outweigh the costs involved.

evaporation of water off the surface of plant leaves. Evapotranspiration contributes to weather and climate.

ecological succession in an area without soil or bottom sediments

ecological succession in an area in which natural vegetation has been removed or destroyed but the soil or bottom sediment has not been destroyed

Life importance: Building blocks for major macromolecules (proteins, carbohydrates, fats and nucleic acids) Reservoir: rocks Transport: long; Gas (atmosphere), photosynthesis and respiration, sediment, fossil fuels

Life importance: Important element in proteins and DNA Reservoir: atmosphere Transport: short; Nitrogen fixation, nitrification, assimilation, ammonification, denitrification

Importance to life: Used to produce ATP; important mineral for bone and teeth strength Reservoir: Rock Transport: longest; No atmosphere! Erosion, soil, assimilation, decomposition

Importance to life: Universal solvent; drives chemical reactions within the body for metabolism and energy production Reservoir: Ocean Transport: short; Evaporation/ transpiration to condensation to Precipitation to surface runoff /infilatration/percolation

(1) China; (2) India; (3) U.S.; (4) Indonesia

Bangladesh, India, China. With dense urban areas, competition for quality food, water and shelter resources is high and pollution builds up creating health issues due to sewage, waste and urban degradation. There tends to be more poverty... wealth equals health.

Immigration causes increases in population size even if native citizens are having less children (this is why the USA has high populations and lower fertility rate). Population momentum can cause increase in population size- when generations have high fertility rates and then the following generation reduces their rate; there are still a lot of people having children.

large increase in crop production in developing countries achieved by the use of fertilizer, pesticides and high-yield crop varieties; helped provide food security throughout the world; lead to a large spike in exponential human population growth by increasing biotic potential

Developed countries have more diseases related to advanced age (cancers), pollution, and heart disease (due to diet and lifestyle). Developing countries tend to have infectious diseases due to contaminated water and under or malnutrition.

As countries progress through the demographic transitions, poverty reduces and economic and social advances progress due to lower family size, women in the workforce, more advanced education and access to technology.

As a country becomes more developed, they tend to acquire more material goods and have more wealth to afford luxuries including a variety of food from many regions of the world. Imported goods are common and overall resource consumption and single use items are used.

Mass transit in the form of subways, bus systems; green spaces break up impervious surfaces; reclamation of brownfields (hazardous waste sites); use of renewable fuels; urban and roof top gardens for fresh food and reduction of heat island effect; LEED buildings- use of efficient lighting systems; low-VOC emitting carpets and furniture; low flow water systems; ventilation to reduce indoor air pollution; properly placed windows for temperature maintenance and daylight

US- provides citizens with health care systems that give options for family planning; reproductive health is taught in schools; avenues that make legal immigration possible- creates a low fertility rate but population is still growing due to immigration China- One child policy (now being phased out)- families are only to have only one child in exchange for government incentives including better job and education opportunities, access to healthcare and food security; fined for having more than one child; lead to high abortion/adoption rates for girls (culture prefers men) but overall an effect program to reduce fertility rate. India- largely unsuccessful family planning policy; aggressive female sterilization and family planning campaigns for poorly educated women;

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation which is important because It is the designation for industrial animal production where large amounts of animals are raised in confinement for food. CAFOs have a significant impact on environmental health including nutrient runoff into water sources, spread of contagious disease due to conditions (and the use of antibiotics and growth hormones). Pros- increases the amount of food available to population (food security); industrialized farming can be accomplished cheaper than other types

Plants are grown without soil; in a mineral nutrient rich water solution

Genetically Modified Organism which is: Any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques-

Pros- often used as artificial selection for drought/ pest resistant crops; increases crop yield; tolerant to herbicides; produce fruits without seeds, increases shelf life or enrich nutrients, increases food security; can grow GMOs in less than optimal conditions Cons- can threaten biodiversity (especially insects); can lead to antibiotic resistance in bacteria; unstudied health impacts (allergies, cancers, gene ownership of modified seeds creates political and property conflict

corn, wheat, rice

artificial selection of GMO, Synthetic pesticides/herbicides, Irrigation and Syntheticfertilizers

Erosion- high amounts of water sprayed on the crops can cause erosion of top soil- increases sedimentation and nutrient load in bodies of surface water and Often irrigation overdraws from surface or groundwater source causing subsidence (caving/sinking of land) and draws salts from the soil into the water/surface of soil leading to salinization

When farms grow only one type of crop year after year; creates an increase in pests (due to constant source of food) and often leads to the need for more pesticides; the crop will consistently need the same nutrient leading to desertification (loss of nutrients) in the soil and requiring fertilization; Often examples (like cotton in the Aral Sea regions) require irrigation and overdrawing from water source.

Intercropping- plantings between the rows of crops that stabilize the soil and if they are legumes; enrich nitrogen into the soil. Planting - contour planting (planting around hills); terracing (building flat steps on the hill to eliminate the slope); shelter belts- strips of trees planted to block wind and prevent erosion. Crop rotation- changing the type of crops you plant year to year Strip cropping- alternating rows or regions of the type of crops you plant within the same year Tilling- conservation tillage mulches plant to return nutrients to soil; no-till collects only the portion of the plant needed for food and leaving the roots behind to anchor soil

Industrial methods will use synthetic pesticides (chemicals) which create issues with biodiversity; persistence, resistance and toxicity IPM strategies use first: cultural control- crop choice (rotation), second: biological control- natural predators (like breeding lady bugs), third: mechanical control- monitoring for pests, use of indicator species, trapping and cultivation;, finally: chemical control (pheromones, pesticides)

Named after the type of pest they kill (herbicides- plants; rodenticides- rodents; fungicides- fungus); first-generation pesticides- used prior to 1940s and banned due to high toxicity or ineffectiveness (arsenic, mercury, lead); Second generation are synthetic organic compounds; persistence- means the chemical persists (doesn't decompose) for in the environment; dangerous because it can travel with erosion into waterways and builds up in the food chain leading to bioaccumulation and biomagnification.

Costs- Pesticides are soluble; travel to places they were no intentionally used; fat soluble in organisms causes them to accumulate within the body- increasing toxic effects, genetic resistance, pesticide treadmill (increase amount we spray as resistant bugs populate), reduces biodiversity Benefits- increases crop yield, food security, saves money,

US federal law (Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act) that regulates pesticides to protect applicators, consumers and the environment. EPA uses the law to protect environment and public health; restricts pesticides of different formulas and mixtures and restricts where they are used or applied; requires pesticides to be registered with appropriate doses, intended use and label with proper usage; restricts which pesticides are available to general public

(1) CITES- Treaty on the International Trade of Endangered Species (2) Lacey Act- prohibits the interstate transport of wild animals without a federal permit (3) Kyoto Protocol- commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions- (harvesting of the lumbar would increase those gases)

An old growth forest will have greater species richness as age distribution within the forest will vary more; species within the forest will vary more and many organisms who rely on the old growth tree stands will be found in that habitat. The old growth forest will be in the climax community stage of succession which is a more stable environment; Remediated forests often have large stands of one type of tree; all of the same age. They will be earlier in succession.

Many conifers are adapted to fires; their cones open in the fires to distribute seeds for regrowth; fires burn underbrush and tree debris that decompose slowly in the cooler environments of the Taiga which returns nutrients to the soil and enriches the seeds for optimal growth; suppression of the fires limits seed germination and limits new growth. It also allows the dry wood debris to build so when accidental fires burn, they often grow uncontrollable creating property loss and massive forest fires to spread. Controlled burns are now used to maximize the fire's benefits in controlled conditions to protect property and prevent the spread to inhabited areas.

Clear cutting- an entire forested area is cut down- most damaging; completely destroys area down to the soil Strip cutting- portions of the forest is harvested- next most damaging- creates fragmented forests that limits gene flow and territory for organisms; increases edge effect because light conditions change on the edges of the forest, changing what can grow there Selective cutting- trees are harvested individually from diverse forests- can be sustainable as long as the harvested trees are not most or all of the largest; maintains the forest ecosystem; can potentially encourage new growth because of the thinning

National forests are used for forest products including commercial use of lumber, herbs, fungi, fruits, nuts etc; removal of which is managed by government; manages region to conserve and restore forests to be more resilient to climate change and enhance water resources; goal- maintain and improve health of forests and grasslands to meet resource needs of current and future generations; manages vegetation, restores ecosystems, reduces hazards

Overgrazing reduces grass cover, exposes soil to erosion and enhances invasion of invasive species due to animals exceeding the carrying capacity of the grassland; moderate levels can stimulate regrowth and greater diversity so larger ranglelands (like BLM lands) and moving livestock to give grasses time to regenerate is the healthiest management strategy

Issue: encourage independent driving which uses more fossil fuels and creates more air pollution and oil/litter debris and road salts (nonpoint pollution); impervious surfaces increase surface water runoff leading to more water pollution Sustainable alternative: Mass transit decreases cars on the road and pollution; permeable pavement increases percolation of water into soil; build phytoremediation on roadways to filter pollution runoff; manage storm water

Issue: Highway systems segment habitats making it difficult for organisms to have range and gene flow; Sustainable alternative: greenways over highways provide paths for wildlife to move safely across road ways; urban planning evaluates migration routes and avoids them when building highways

Issue: Diverts water from natural surface water causing overdraw; pollution can travel to channels; often made of impervious surfaces; washes sediment, oils and litter into water systems; changes water flow, speed and depth which affects biodiversity and creates algae blooms; also separates habitats limiting migration, range/territory and gene flow Sustainable alternative: Channel liners limit the algae growth; riparian zones and greenways to connect habitats, phytoremediation

commuting increases leading to more pollution, job dispersal shifts; requires building traffic infrastructure, parking, police, emergency services etc. Less integration of impoverished portions of city creating a larger gap in segregation and can lead to environmental degradation in the impoverished portions of the city. Sprawl leads to development of natural ecosystems, fragmentation of forested areas and more impervious surfaces

Preserves land in its natural state and keeps human activities to a minimum. No harvesting of resources in these areas; often source of much political debate due to economic potential

Protect and preserve land and conserve and enhance the natural beauty, wildlife and cultural heritage of the country; open to public use and used to educate public Highly visited regions can have issues related to high traffic and pollution

Protected region managed by US fish and wildlife service; to protect and manage public lands and waters to conserve America's fish, wildlife and plants; open to public for recreational use Often not as developed as national park systems; managed public use for hunting, fishing, hiking etc. Often in threatened habitats or migration routes.; conservation management for misuse important

Forests managed by National forest service for resource preservation- conservation of timber, grazing, wildlife fish, etc. Land is open for public, often with basic/minimal infrastructure; commercial harvesting is allowed through permits and can still cause issues with biodiversity

National wetlands inventory managed by FWS to monitor and provide information on location and state of wetlands. Endangered ecosystems due to development, sedimentation

Management of grasslands and mining of public lands to conserve soil and mineral resources while preserving the health, diversity and productivity of the public lands Conflict over land use and allowable mining operations are often source of political debate.

Preservation - deep ecology- land is kept as natural; no human visitation allowed; seeks protection of nature from use (as opposed to conservation which is the proper use of nature)

b) Remediation - the removal of pollution or contaminants from the environment such as soil, groundwater sediment or surface water

Mitigation - projects intended to offset known impacts to an existing natural resource; used to reduce land use impacts of a project such as reducing acid mine drainage during coal mining.

Restoration - Reversing damage to an environment by making it safe for humans, wildlife and plant communities and recovering communities (especially plants)

1) USA (Northern states, Appalachia); 2) Russia; 3) China

1) Venezuela; 2) Saudi Arabia; 3) Canada

1) Russia; 2) Iran 3) Qatar

Removing minerals such as gravel, sand or metal ores by digging from the Earth's surface and leaving an open pit behind. Land above cleared/ habitat destruction; erosion and runoff into surface water; acid mine drainage

Extraction of a metal ore or fuel resource such as coal from deep underground deposits Cave ins, explosions, fires, black lung disease, subsidence

Form of subsurface mining in which bulldozers power shovels or stripping wheels move large chunks ofo the Earth's surface in strips Leaves a series of spoils banks; promotes erosion and acid mine drainage

Type of surface mining that uses explosives massive power shovels and large machines to remove the top of a mountain and expose the seams of coal underneath. Waste rock and dirt destroys forests, buries streams, toxic mining materials leach arsenic and mercury into water from dam structures contaminating surface water

Used in the harvest of natural gas and oil requires drilling deep into subterranean (shale deposits) and using hydraulic fracturing Ground instability, contamination of water; earthquakes

NEPA- National Environmental Policy Act- evaluate and communicate environmental consequences; RCRA- Resource

technique typically used to harvest scallops, crabs, and shrimp from the sea floor.

Longline- lines up to 80 miles long; hooked and baited left free floating for days; high by-catch of dolphins, sea turtles, whales and birds Bottom trawling- dragging nets along bottom of seafloor- Unselective fishing has high rate of bycatch; damages seafloor, leads to overfishing; harm coral reefs, sharks, and sea turtles Dredging- type of bottom trawling for benthic species such as oysters, scallops, oysters and clams/crabs; destroys benthic ecosystems; overfishing; bycatch, sediment distribution changes in water supply

Pros= economic opportunity; protects natural ecosystems from overfishing Cons- reduces diversity, introduces disease to local ecosystems, unpredictable, increased risk of water contamination,

ESA- Endangered species act; marine mammal protection act; National Environment Policy Act

Goal to end extreme poverty in developing countries and promote prosperity by fostering income growth- provides small loans to women for business; involves education on money management, business, family planning and family structure; Supports sustainable development and population management.

Before the industrial revolution we used biomass energy (burning wood), wind energy, and water energy, after the industrial revolution we started burning fossil fuels (start with coal), As developing nation acquire access to modern medicine and improve their infrastructure death rates decrease leading to exponential population growth and exponentially increasing use of energy (and a switch from using biomass/wind/water energy to fossil fuel use, During energy crises the costs of energy use increase (increased oil prices, etc.) and businesses are driven to innovation (people look to other sources for energy)

Oil, coal, natural gas, hydroelectric, nuclear

Energy needs will increase, demand for energy not associated with fossil fuels in particular will increase. Coal production will decrease and natural gas use will increase

(lowest) PeatLigniteBituminous coalanthracite (highest)

Gasoline, kerosene, diesel, motor oil, asphalt, jet fuel, heating oil, tar, paraffin wax, plastics,

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, which is important because: There is oil in a portion on ANWR but drilling for it will harm the wildlife (particularly the caribou). The debate weighs the potential economic benefit of recovering the oil against the potential harm to wildlife

Causes earthquakes, often drinking water is used to drill (a waste of freshwater), drilling fluids can seep into surface water or groundwater (groundwater contaminationdrinking water contamination), groundwater can be contaminated with methane, waste stored on site can leak into the ground, toxic wastewater can return to the surface (sometimes with radioactive materials), methane is initially vented into the atmosphere (methane is a greenhouse gas), VOCs and other air pollutants can be released

Advantages - produces fewer air pollutants when burned than coal, potential large supply, can be used as vehicle fuel, we have lots of coal in the US Disadvantages - It's made from coal or natural gas, so it still involves burning fossil fuels and putting CO2 into the atmosphere, it's expensive to make, low to moderate energy yield, higher cost than coal, required mining more coal, increased surface mining of coal, high water use, higher CO2 emissions than coal

Inside the reactor neutrons are hurled at high speeds at the nuclei of uranium atoms. This causes the uranium atom to divide into two new nuclei (as well as release more neutrons) and release heat energy. Excess released neutrons are absorbed by control rods (to prevent the reaction from accelerating out of control).

Safety issues include highly reactive radioactive waste (control rods) as well as low quality radioactive waste (rags used for cleaning, etc.). Most radioactive waste produced is stored in site. However, radioactive waste needs to be moved and buried off site someplace far from human habitation, where it won't leak into groundwater, and where it's not vulnerable to natural disasters or terrorist attack. The other safety issue is nuclear meltdown, which can be prevented through routine maintenance and up to date safety procedures

In nuclear fission we use accelerated neutrons to split large atoms (uranium) and use the heat generated to create electricity. In nuclear fusion (which happens naturally in the sun) we fuse small atoms (hydrogen) into larger atoms to generate electricity. Fusion produces no radioactive waste and when the reaction proceeds unregulated it burns out like a candle rather than accelerates like an unregulated nuclear fission reaction.

During periods of heavy rain dams can impound floodwater and then release them under control. They can also store or divert water for other uses. Dams can also exacerbate flood issues upstream, or fail and cause flooding downstream. Dams also tend to accumulate sediment deposits, which reduces the lifespan of the dam. As river water reaches the reservoir created by the dam, the water slows and sediments deposit which lifts the riverbed and increases the vulnerability to flooding

Dams negatively impact organisms, like salmon, that migrate upstream. Fish ladders can remediate this problem by allowing salmon to migrate upstream. Fish ladders are a series of pools that are built like steps.

California desert tortoise, California patch butterfly, Western banded gecko, Desert iguana, Kangaroo rat

active element in most photovoltaic cells.

indoor air pollutants (furniture, wooden produces, foam insulation- primary pollutant

Radon: source- byproduct of radioactive decay of uranium; can naturally escape from soil into basements of homes- primary

naturally released from volcanos, forest fires; released when fossil fuels, especially coal, are burned; primary pollutant

Carbon monoxide: released when burning any fuel such as in a vehicle or furnace; primary pollutant

Nitrous oxide: naturally released by lightning; released when fossil fuels are burned; such as in power plants and car exhaust- primary pollutant

Memory loss, high blood Pressure, and abnormal kidney function

catalytic converter; CO to CO2 and H2O

Impervious surfaces such as roads and buildings replace porous surfaces. Sun heats the roofs and asphalt which radiate much warmer air temperatures; increased levels of pollutants in the air (such as greenhouse gases) trap that heat; creates a polluted dome of warm air over urban centers.

wet or dry airborne acids that fall to the earth Acid deposition is caused by nitrogen oxide and sulfur oxide emissions from burning fuels. Acid deposition can cause the water and soil pH to become acidic. In soils, this leaches heavy metals that interrupt nutrient absorption by plants and affects photosynthesis. In water, the acid can cause acid shock in fish; disrupting their gills function; it can affect aquatic organisms. The acid rain also dissolves calcium carbonate (limestone) causing the degradation of concrete structures.

Temperature inversions are when coastal winds are trapped by an ocean causing a warm pocket/layer of air to hover between two cooler layers. This warm pocket restricts the transfer of pollution and heat to escape out into the atmosphere.

Stratospheric ozone is "good" because it absorbs UV radiation. The UV light causes the decomposition and formation of O3. This absorbs the cell damaging, UV light. In the troposphere, UV light causes the formation of O3 during photochemical smog. This, when inhaled, causes respiratory irritation and immunity issues.

Indoor air pollution varies based on the products, ventilation and age of the building. Most indoor air pollution regulations are based on occupational hazards for companies. Top indoor air pollutants: second hand smoke, mold, radon, asbestos, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, lead, particulates and VOCs

Mitigation systems (ventilators) can be used in homes to remove radon seeping into basements; seal cracks,

US Federal law designed to control air pollution; requires the EPA to develop and enforce regulations against airborne pollutants known to be hazardous to human health

Sources- industrial sources, traffic, household appliances (leaf blowers, etc), agricultural machines; public address systems (speakers) defense equipment; sonic impulses in ocean; Effects- causes psychological stress and behaviors- high blood pressure, hearing loss, sleep disturbances Control- Insulation materials, buffer materials such as trees

Water used to convert as steam and turn turbines should be cooled. The water used as a coolant; absorbs and readily holds heat. This hot water, if deposited into a stream, can reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen leading to hypoxia (loss of oxygen) in the water and fish/animal death.

Water runs off the land into area streams as runoff and picks up sediment and water soluable substances (such as pollutants). This factor is important in determining water quality.

pollutants can seep into groundwater sources, such as gasoline, oil, road salts and chemicals; most common sources- sewage disposal, sludge, brine disposal from petroleum industry, mining acid drainage, animal feedlot waste

measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution (less than 7 is acidic; 7 is neutral and over 7 is alkaline)

Turbidity: A measure of the water clarity (suspended particles like soil, algae, plankton, microbes, etc. will cloud the water.)

Water hardness: The measure of the amount of calcium and magnesium in the water which enter from the weathering of rocks.

Biological oxygen demand: Biological oxygen demand- the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic organisms (like bacteria) in a body of water to break down the organic material present

Organic waste: Biodegradable waste that can be broken down in a reasonable amount of time into base compounds by microorganisms and other living things.

1) chlorine 2) UV light 3) peroxone (ozone/hydrogen peroxide)

is flammable, corrosive, reactive/explosive, toxic/poisonous

Incineration: Benefit- reduces the amount of waste (bulk), less dependence on landfills (saves habitats, saving on transportation of waste; can be used as biomass; protects groundwater Disadvantage- releases toxins into atmosphere (mercury, dioxins, lead and other pollutants), climate impacts, emit more CO2 than coal power plants; not renewable

Sanitary landfill- Benefit- minimizes cost of exporting trash, methane vents can be burned for energy, safety from vectors and fires Disadvantage- forms leachate that can seep into and contaminate groundwater; flammable methane is formed; dust and pollution, NIMBY odors

iii. Deep well injection Pros- inexpensive way to dispose of hazardous waste; removes waste from accessible areas, cons- could leak into ground water or react; can cause earthquakes

iv. Surface impoundment- pros- low cost, can be built quickly and waste can be retrieved, stored indefinitely with liners; cons- groundwater contamination, air pollution, flooding/overflow, disruption from earthquakes, promotes waste production; exposure to wildlife

Reduce (uses less overall material), Reuse (reuse of materials reduces demand), Recycle- (saves habitats from mining operations since material is used again)

Not in my backyard which is: When communities fight against the construction of less than desirable but important public services, such as landfills, wind farms, etc.; challenging to find locations for trash disposal and often leads to environmental injustice issues where impoverished areas receive the bulk of the undesirable environmental hazards.

Account for the Dose Response assessment (how toxic it is at various dosages; LD50- Lethal dose of 50% of sample), exposure mechanisms (how many people come into contact and how)

Acute is short term effects, chronic is long term/permanent effects. Chronic has more law governing them since they are a greater threat to human health.

Threshold dose response has a dosage where no adverse effects are noted. Then the effect will grow exponentially as the dose is increased. These toxins will be approved for use in low dosages. The non-threshold response causes adverse effects at any dose and will be restricted from use.

Nitrogen oxides (lung damage), Sulfur oxides (eye irritation, lung damage), Mercury (cause neurological damage), Tropospheric ozone (lung damage (asthma), eye irritation), CFC- (cataracts, sunburn, skin cancer), Carbon dioxide (malnutrition), Lead (brain and kidney damage), Carbon monoxide (binds to hemoglobin in blood causing hypoxia),VOCs (respiratory issues, cancer), Particulates (lung damage, eye irritation)

Smoking and radon

Sources- industrial, agricultural pesticides and animal waste, municipal such as motor oil;

Pros- inexpensive way to dispose of hazardous waste; removes waste from accessible areas, cons- could leak into ground water or react; can cause earthquakes

pros- low cost, can be built quickly and waste can be retrieved, stored indefinitely with liners; cons- groundwater contamination, air pollution, flooding/overflow, disruption from earthquakes, promotes waste production; exposure to wildlife

CERCLA- Comprehensive Environmental Response, compensation and liability Act- (Superfund Act) gives the EPA the right to clean up hazardous waste events. Legally the polluting offender/company will pay for the mitigation cost and is liable for the cost of harm to the families- medical bills and relocation.

hydro-chloro-fluro-carbons, which is: A class of synthetic chemicals that are used as refrigerants (they're more commonly known as Freon), aerosols, and propellants that evaporate readily and catalyze the breakdown of the ozone layer.

Exposure to UV light can mutate DNA leading to skin cancer, can cause cataracts, and can damage crops

Environmental damages come from the damage to organism (corneal damage, skin cancer, and crop damage [think plants getting "sun burned"]). Economic impacts can occur as a consequence of damaged crops and the cost of health care from damage to human eyes and skin

The Montreal Protocol has restricted the use of CFCs, but since they're very persistent the effect of the ban is gradual.

Increase in sea level, increase in frequency and severity of weather events, increased frequency and severity of heat waves, decreased frequency and severity of cold spells, increased range of disease carrying organisms, glacier retreat, loss of biodiversity, warming of ocean surfaces, reduction in sea ice

Replace light bulbs with LEDs, drive less, carpool more, reduce resource consumption (reusable materials instead of disposable materials), recycle, install solar panels, buy energy efficient appliances, use less hot water, avoid products with lots of packaging, install a programmable thermostat, turn off lights and electronic devices, plant a tree, replace filters on air conditioners and furnaces, buy more fuel efficient car or an electric car, conserve water, don't idle your car, eat less meat, use a clothesline to dry your clothes, ride your bike instead of drive, use kitchen towels instead of paper towels, use Tupperware instead of zip lock bags, insulate your water heater, spread awareness and advocate change

Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), water vapor (H2O), CFCs, ozone (O3)

Higher temperatures increase the rate of decomposition, increased rates of decomposition leads to more CO2 output, which causes higher temperatures. Another positive feedback loop is the thawing of arctic permafrost: higher temperatures cause thawing of permafrost which increases rates of decomposition which releases increased CO2 and CH4 which contributes to increased warming

Increased atmospheric CO2 leads to increase plant growth which removes CO2 from the atmosphere which slows temperature warming

International: Montreal protocol, Kyoto protocol. US: clean air act, clean water act Climate change is difficult to solve because we have a high energy demand and our infrastructure is already based on burning fossil fuels. Plus it requires international agreement. Plus the consequences of climate change are complex, sometimes hard to see, and disproportionate affect people in developing countries (developing countries and their people don't have the power to influence developed countries)

Habitat loss - Orangutans Overuse - Black rhinos Pollution - Dolphins Introduced species - White-throated ground-dove Endangered and extinct species - Titanoboa

We should not protect endangered species like the Giant Panda because protecting them limits economic development.

Endangered species act, Marine mammal protection act, Lacy act