World History Unit 7

a person of European ancestry that was born in the Americas

a person of mixed European and indigenous descent

a person of mixed European and African descent

Mexico was a colony of Spain and had a racial hierarchy. At the top were peninsulares, those living in Mexico that had been born in Spain. Peninsulares made up the smallest segment of the population. But as the privileged class, the peninsulares held the highest positions in the colonial administration and the Catholic Church. After the peninsulares, Creoles held the next position in the hierarchy. Creoles were persons of European descent who were born in the Americas. Creoles did not receive high positions in the government or church and, as a result, there was much tension between the Creoles and peninsulares. Below the Creoles, were the people of mixed races, Africans, and the native population, or indios. Mestizos were people of mixed European and indigenous descent. Mulattoes were those of mixed African and European descent.

were people of mixed European and indigenous descent.

were those of mixed African and European descent.

late 1700s, discontent swept through France like a fire. The government was in a deep financial crisis. The lavish spending of the royal court, the Seven Years' War, and the aid given to help finance the American Revolution had left the government in debt. To pay for these expenses, the French government had borrowed vast amounts of money and owed a huge sum in interest. France's taxation system could not generate enough money to alleviate the financial crisis so in May 1789, Louis XVI was forced to call a meeting of the Estates General to address the tax system. The Estates General was an assembly comprised of delegates representing the three estates.

Napoleon was named first consul for life in 1802 and he declared himself emperor of France in 1804. Napoleon immediately launched military conquests across Europe. In time, Napoleon created an empire that included Spain, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, and much of Germany, Poland, Croatia, and Slovenia. In these areas, Napoleon established republics. Each had its own constitution, an elected legislature, and a declaration of rights. Napoleon also introduced a new law code, the Napoleonic Code, in 1804. The code reflected many of the ideas of the French Revolution including equality before the law and religious freedom.

Russia developed in isolation from the rest of Europe. Although feudalism had disappeared in Europe, Russia maintained its feudal economy. Serfs were not set free until 1861. Efforts toward industrialization were not made until the end of the nineteenth century. Even then, a large urban working class did not develop. In 1900, ninety percent of the population belonged to the peasantry, and most were illiterate.

covered a sixth of the world's land surface and was comprised of a multi-ethnic population that included Slavic peoples, non-Slavic Europeans, and Turkic Muslims. Russian rulers accepted Eastern Orthodox Christianity and took the title of czar. The czars were autocratic rulers, meaning they had complete authority; there were no political parties or local governments. To eliminate opposition to their rule, czars relied on strict censorship and a secret police force, and passports were required to travel around the country.

In 1825, a group of former army officers led an anti-czarist revolt. The army officers had been strongly influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution while fighting against Napoleon Bonaparte's forces. The officers wanted to end Russia's autocratic rule and establish a constitutional monarchy. Czar Nicholas I, of the Romanov dynasty, put down the uprising and worked to eliminate the spread of revolutionary ideas from Western Europe. Suspected dissenters were exiled to Siberia.

Nicholas's son, Alexander II, became czar in 1855 in the middle of a conflict known as the Crimean War between Russia and the allied forces of Great Britain, France, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire. The war broke out when France and Russia each claimed to be the nation who protected Christian interests in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman ruler waffled between the two nations, claiming first one and then the other as the rightful protector. The British got involved because they were concerned about the Russians taking over the region of the Black Sea. The Sardinians entered the war in the hopes that their assistance would win support from Britain and France for the idea of a united Italy.

While industrialization was transforming the Russian economy, the autocracy continued to face opposition. In 1905, a peaceful protest against the regime turned violent when guards at the czar's palace in St. Petersburg opened fire on the protesters. Hundreds were killed. The massacre became known as Bloody Sunday. Strikes and demonstrations across Russia followed. Czar Nicolas II, son of Alexander III, was forced to make changes. An elected legislature called the Duma was formed. No law could go into effect without its approval. The formation of political parties was also allowed

an elected legislature called the Duma was established, and political parties were allowed.

Once again, France took the lead. In 1824, Louis XVIII died and his brother, Charles X, took the throne. Charles adopted an absolutist regime, meaning he held unlimited power. In 1830 Charles suspended the legislature, censored the press, and limited suffrage. In response, the French people took to the streets and were able to gain control of Paris. In what is known as the July Revolution, Charles fled to England and Louis Philippe, the cousin of Charles, became king of France. The French people had high hopes for Louis Philippe. He flew the flag of the French Revolution and had served in the army during the years of the first French Republic. But Louis did not want to broaden voting rights (during this time, only one man in thirty was eligible to vote), and many accused his government of being corrupt. At the same time, an economic depression and food shortages were affecting France as well as the rest of Europe.