involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness.
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Cognitive development
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involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.
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Psychological development
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involves emotions, personality, and social relationships. We refer to these
domains throughout the chapter.
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Normative approach
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Across these three domains—physical, cognitive, and psychosocial—the normative approach to
development is also discussed. This approach asks, "What is normal development?
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Although children develop at
slightly different rates, we can use these age-related averages as general guidelines to compare children
with same-age peers to determine the approximate ages they should reach specific normative events
called
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developmental milestones (e.g., crawling, walking, writing, dressing, naming colors, speaking in
sentences, and starting puberty).
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Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous?
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Continuous development views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing
skills (Figure 9.2). With this type of development, there is gradual change. Consider, for example, a child's
physical growth: adding inches to her height year by year. In contrast, theorists who view development
as discontinuous believe that development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific times or ages.
With this type of development, the change is more sudden, such as an infant's ability to conceive object
permanence.
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How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development?
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Are we who we are because of nature (biology and genetics), or are we who we are because of nurture
(our environment and culture)? This longstanding question is known in psychology as the nature versus
nurture debate.
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Freud's stages are called the stages of psychosexual development. According to Freud, children's
pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the
five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
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Erikson's psychosocial development theory emphasizes the social nature of our
development rather than its sexual nature. While Freud believed that personality is shaped only in
childhood, Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. Erikson
suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego
identity. Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives.
According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from
infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve.
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Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development
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Stage 1: 0-1 years. Trust vs mistrust. Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and
affection, will be met
Stage 2: 1-3 years. Autonomy vs shame/doubt. Develop a sense of independence in many tasks
Stage 3: 3-6 years. Initiative vs guilt. Take initiative on some activities—may develop guilt when
unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped.
Stage 4: 7-11 years. Industry vs inferiority. Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense
of inferiority when not.
Stage 5: 12-18 years. Identity vs confusion.Experiment with and develop identity and roles.
Stage 6: 19-29 years. Intimacy vs isolation. Establish intimacy and relationships with others.
Stage 7: 30-64 years. Generativity vs stagnation. Contribute to society and be part of a family.
Stage 8: 65- years. Integrity vs despair. Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions
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Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is another stage theorist who studied childhood development (Figure 9.5). Instead
of approaching development from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on
children's cognitive growth.
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His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific
stages, which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development. As we progress to a new stage, there
is a distinct shift in how we think and reason.
Piaget said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world. Schemata are concepts
(mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information
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Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
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Age 0-2: Sensorimotor
World experienced through senses and actions
Object permanence
Stranger anxiety
Age 2-6: Preoperational
Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning
Pretend play
Egocentrism
Language development
Age 7-11: Concrete operational
Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical operations
Conservation
Mathematical
transformations
Age 12-: Formal operational
Formal operations
Utilize abstract reasoning
Abstract logic
Moral reasoning
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Kohlberg: stages of moral reasoning
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Level 1: Pre-conventional morality
Stage 1: Obedience and punishment: behavior driven by avoiding punishment
Stage 2: Individual interest: behavior driven by self-interest and rewards
Level 2: Conventional morality
Stage 3: Interpersonal: behavior driven by social approval
Stage 4: Authority: behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming to social order
Level 3: Post-conventional morality
Stage 5: Social contract: behavior driven by balance of social order and individual rights
Stage 6: Universal ethics: behavior driven by internal moral principles
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Germinal Stage 1 to 2 weeks
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Embryonic Stage 3-8 Weeks: Basic structures of the embryo start to develop into areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen.
During the embryonic stage, the heart begins to beat and organs form and begin to function. The neural
tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and brain
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