Environmental Science Chapter 11

core, mantle, crust. The outermost layer, the crust, is comparatively extremely thin. Most of Earth's volume is in the mantle and the core.

new oceanic crust. Tectonic plates push apart as magma rises, creating new oceanic crust.

intense heat in the asthenosphere that generates convection. The asthenosphere is detached from the lithosphere above, allowing for the "conveyor belt" effect of tectonic plate movement.

at transform plate boundaries. Two plates slide past each other at transform plate boundaries.

convergent plate boundaries. can cause either subduction or continental collisions. Continental collisions lead to mountain formations.

organic compound. Rock-forming minerals are composed of inorganic compounds, specific chemical composition, Solid, crystal structure

lithification

Sedimentary. Fossils and fossil fuels are formed due to diagenesis, a sedimentary process.

Lithosphere. composed of the entire crust and the topmost portion of the mantle. It is relatively rigid compared to the plastic asthenosphere directly below it.

Volcanoes, When a volcano erupts it produces magma, which cools quickly on Earth's surface, producing extrusive igneous rock.

Metamorphic. Once a rock either completely or partially melts it is classified as an igneous rock.

Compaction. Compaction of these sedimentary layers can result in fissile, separate layers within the resulting rock formations.

igneous rock. formed when lava cools. Over time, cooled lava accumulates and can form a volcano.

convergent plate boundary. When oceanic crust and continental crust collide, the oceanic crust subducts beneath the continental crust and volcanoes form.

Tsunamis. Tsunamis happen when large volumes of water are displaced, causing an immense wave. They are often triggered by earthquakes, landslides, or volcanoes.

zoning laws to reduce building in flood zones. Such laws would prevent buildings from existing in dangerous flood zones and therefore mitigate the negative effects of flooding on humans.

the cooling of Earth's surface due to ash and emissions in the atmosphere, which block sunlight. Enormous amounts of volcanic material in the atmosphere can significantly cool Earth's entire surface for many years.

a marsh-like environment that was filled with landfill in order to build a city. The loose soil of the filled area would be especially susceptible to disruption by an earthquake.

mass wasting. Mudslides are also a type of mass wasting.

Kansas. a state located in the middle of the United States and is far from either coast; therefore, it is not near enough to an ocean to be at risk of a giant wave caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides.

An alloy is a combination of a metal with another metal or nonmetal substance that has been melted and fused together. By combining metals with other substances, alloys can be made that are superior for some purposes than the metal alone.

nuclear power, Fertilizers, cell phones. Mined materials are used in almost every aspect of our lives.

a commonly mined energy resource, is not a mineral. Coal is not a mineral because it is entirely composed of organic materials.

the remains of ore after most of the metals have been removed. These mine wastes can contribute to water pollution.

Lithosphere. The lithosphere takes on two meanings. The lithosphere, composed of the entire crust and the topmost layer of the mantle, is the upper region of Earth's crust. It is also the solid component of Earth's four systemic spheres.

Smelting allows us to alter the properties of a metal to suit particular needs. Smelting iron with carbon makes steel--a material that has better strength and malleability characteristics for many applications.

Profits from tantalum mining have helped fuel a war that has killed more than 5 million people. Warring militias seized control of the mining operations and used the profits to fund their wars.

strip mining and subsurface mining. If coal is not removed in layers near the surface, it is mined within networks of shafts and tunnels.

strip mining. used most often for coal and oil sands that are close to the surface.

manganese nodules. Even though there are trillions of tons of manganese nodules on the ocean floor, we do not yet have an economically viable method of mining it.

The waters in the pit become highly acidic and contain high levels of toxic metals. The toxic waters of the Berkeley Pit make it one of the largest Superfund sites in the country.

Mining exposes unweathered rock surfaces that react with water and the atmosphere to generate acids. The large amount of freshly exposed rock provides the sulfur to generate sulfuric acid.

strip mining. Overburden is material removed to get access to the mineral and then replaced. The replacement of overburden is not part of the placer mining process.

changes in product technologies that use minerals, development of new extraction technologies, changing rates of mineral recycling. With numerous factors changing over time, estimating how long a mineral resource will last is very difficult.

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