CH 23 Respiratory System

The respiratory system consists of the respiratory passageways extending through the ___, ___, and____, and the____ themselves

The respiratory tract is the passageway for air between the ____ and the ____

A thin barrier between the ____ and ____ provides the site for exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide

____ receptors located in the superior regions of the nasal cavity detect ___ as air moves across them

The ____ of the larynx vibrate as air moves across them to produce sound

The rate and depth of breathing influence the blood levels of ___, ____, and ____

The ____system affects the venous return of blood and lymph

The upper respiratory tract includes the___, ____, ____

The lower respiratory tract includes the ___,___, ____, ____, ____, and _____.

The ____ consists of passageways that serve primarily to transport air.

The____ consists of structures that participate in gas exchange with the blood

The respiratory passageway is lined by a mucous membrane called a ___

The ___ of the mucosa generally becomes progressively thinner from the nasal cavity to the alveoli

The epithelium lining most of the respiratory tract contains ____

____ underlies the epithelium; it houses both mucus and serous glands

Mucus is produced from the combined secretions of the ___, ___ & ____

Mucus secretions contain ____, a protein that increases viscosity of mucus to more effectively trap dust, dirt particles, microorganisms, and pollen

When mucus mixes with saliva and materials it entraps, it may be coughed up as ____.

The__is the main conducting passageway for inhaled air

The nasal cavity extends from the ___ to paired openings called ____, which lead to the ___.

The ____ divides the nasal cavity into left and right portions

The ___, ___, & ____ are paired, bony projections that produce turbulence in inhaled air

Inferior to each pair of nasal conchae is its nasal ___

The three regions of the nasal cavities are

____: located immediately internal to the nostrils and is lined by skin and coarse hairs called vibrissae

____ - the superior portion of the nasal cavity and contains the olfactory epithelium.

___ - the main portion of the nasal cavity

A primary function of the nasal cavity is to ___, ___, & ___ air as it enters the respiratory tract

The____ are spaces within the skull bones

The paranasal sinuses include the ___, ___, ___, & ___

The ____ is a funnel-shaped passageway that is located posterior to the nasal cavity, oral cavity, and larynx

Air is conducted along the pharynx's entire length, and both air and food pass through its ____ portions

The three regions of the pharynx

The ____ is the superior most region of the pharynx

Nasopharynx extends from the ____to the tip of the ____

The nasopharynx lateral walls house paired openings into ____ that connect the nasopharynx to the ____

The ____ is located on the posterior nasopharynx wall; it is called the ____ when enlarged

The ____ is the middle pharyngeal region and is immediately posterior to the oral cavity

The oropharynx extends from the tip of the____ to the level of the____.

The ____ are located on lateral walls of the oropharynx

The ___ are at the base of the tongue.

The ____ is the inferior, narrowed region of the pharynx located posterior to the larynx

The laryngopharynx lied between the____ and the superior portion of the ____

Both the ____ and the ____ serve as a common passageway for food and air

The structures of the lower respiratory tract include the ___, ____, ___, ____, ____, _____, and ____

Functions of the larynx

The___ is a cylindrical airway that is continuous with the laryngopharynx and the trachea. It is composed of nine cartilages that are supported by ligaments and skeletal muscle

The larynx is held in place by ___

____ cartilage. Shaped like a shield; anterior projection is the laryngeal prominence.

The____ is anchored to the inner aspect of the thyroid cartilage and closes over the laryngeal inlet during swallowing

The ____ are covered with a mucous membrane to form the vocal folds, which produce sounds and are called true vocal cords

The ____ includes the vocal folds and the opening between the folds

The ___ ligaments are covered with a mucous membrane to form the vestibular folds, which do not produce sound and are called false vocal cords

_____ occurs as the vocal folds vibrate during expiration

The range of a voice is determined by the ___ and ___ of the vocal folds

____ is determined by the amount of tension on the vocal folds, which is regulated by the intrinsic laryngeal muscles

____ depends on the force of the air passing across the vocal cords

The pharynx, nasal and oral cavities, and the paranasal sinuses serve as ____ for sound

The____ is a flexible, tubular organ that extends inferiorly through the neck from the larynx. It lies immediately anterior to the ___-

The anterior and lateral walls of the trachea are supported by ___ C-shaped rings of___ cartilage called ___cartilages. These allow distortions posteriorly for large masses of food to pass through the ___

the open end of the C-shaped rings is ___ and lies against the ___

The trachea is approximately __ cm (5inches) long. It is lined with ___ that produces mucus

The ____ is a highly branched system of air-conducting passages that originates at the____and progressively branches into narrower tubes that diverge throughout the ___

Bronchi have walls with ___ to keep them open

The____ bifurcates into the right and left main (primary) bronchi

Each main (primary) bronchus branches into ____ (secondary) bronchi; the___ has two lobar bronchi, and the ___ has three lobar bronchi. Each lobar bronchi supplies a lobe of the lung

The lobar (secondary) bronchi further divide into ____ bronchi (tertiary) bronchi; the ___ has 10 segmental bronchi, and the ___ has 10 segmental bronchi. Each segmental bronchi services a ___ segment

Bronchi lead into tubes called ___

____ have walls that lack cartilage. Instead, they have ____

____ is contraction of smooth muscle that narrows the diameter of the bronchiole. in turn, ____ the amount of air passing through the ___

___ is relaxation of smooth muscle that increases the diameter of the bronchiole. in turn, ____ the amount of air passing through the bronchial tree

_____ are the last portion of the conducting pathway; they lead to respiratory bronchioles, which are the first segments of the respiratory zone

Respiratory Zone: ___, ____, and ____

The respiratory zone is defined by passageways with ____. Associated with the wall of passageways are thin-walled air sacs called___ that allows for gas exchange with pulmonary capillaries

The smallest respiratory bronchioles subdivide into thin airways called ___

Alveolar ducts lead into ____ - grape-like clusters of alveoli

___ are small, saccular outpocketings off of the ____, alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs. ___ are the functional unit of the lung

Alveoli are composed of

____ surround each alveolus for gas exchange

Alveolar type I cells:

Alveolar type II cells:

____ opposes surface tension and prevents the collapse of alveoli

The ____ is the thin barrier that oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse across during gas exchange between the ___ and the ___ in the pulmonary capillaries

The respiratory membrane consists of an ___ and its ___, and a ____ and its ____

The basement membranes of the ___ epithelium and __ endothelium are fused

The paired lungs house both the ___ and the ____ of the respiratory system

The paired lungs are located within the ___ on either side of the ___ and are enclosed and protected by the ___

Each lung has a wide, concave base that rests upon the ___, and an apex that is____ and ___ to the clavicle

Each lung has a ___ shape with an indented region on its ____ surface called the ___ through which pass the bronchi, pulmonary vessels, lymph vessels, and the pulmonary plexus autonomic nerves

Right lung:

Horizontal fissure separates the ____ from the ____; the oblique fissure separates the ____ from the ___

Left Lung:

The ____ fissure separates the superior from the inferior lobe

The lungs are partitioned into ____segments, which are the smallest functional unit of the lung. This can be individually removed without affecting the remaining healthy segments

The _____ conducts blood to and from the gas exchange surfaces of the lungs to replenish its depleted oxygen levels and get rid of excess carbon dioxide

The bronchial circulation is a component of the ____ and transports oxygenated blood to the tissues of the lungs

Each lung occupies a cavity separated by the ____

The serous membranes of the lungs are called ____

The ___ adhere to the lung surface, whereas the ___ line the internal thoracic walls, the lateral surfaces of the mediastinum, and the superior surface of the diaphragm

The ___ is located between the visceral and parietal serous membrane layers

A fluid is produced by the ____ and covers the ____ within the pleural cavity (a space located between the visceral and parietal pleurae).

The chest wall is anatomically configured to expand ___. The lungs ___ to the chest wall as it expands outward.

The ___of the lungs causes the lungs to exhibit an inward pull

The contrasting outward pull of the chest wall and inward pull of the lungs create a ___ within the ____

____ is the pressure generated in the pleural cavity

____ is the pressure inside the lungs

The ___ pressure is lower than the ___ pressure, keeping the lungs inflated

A ____ occurs when air enters the pleural cavity. If the intrapleural and intrapulmonary pressure become equal, the lungs release from the chest wall and ___ (___)

___ is the movement of respiratory gases between the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs

Respiration involves four continuous processes

____: movement of air between the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs

____: exchange of respiratory gases between the alveoli and the blood

___: transport of respiratory gases within the blood between the lungs and systemic cells of the body

____: exchange of respiratory gases between the blood and systemic cells of the body

____, or breathing, is the movement of air between the atmosphere and the alveoli

___ brings air into the lungs, and ____ forces air out of the lungs

___ breathing is the rhythmic breathing that occurs at rest

___ breathing is vigorous breathing that accompanies exercise

The skeletal muscles of breathing are classified into the muscles of ____, muscles of _____, and muscles of ___

Muscles of quiet breathing

Muscles of forced inspiration

Muscles of forced expiration

Muscles of forced inspiration and expiration are called the ___

___ changes of the thoracic cavity result from the movement of the diaphragm

___ changes occur from the elevation and depression of the rib cage

____ changes occur from anterior and posterior movement of the sternum

___ states that at a constant temperature, the pressure of a gas decreases if the volume of the containerincreases. The pressure of a gas ___ if the volume of the container ___

An ____ occurs when the force per unit area is greater in one place than in another

___ pressure is the pressure that gases in the air exert in the environment

The collective volume of the alveoli within the lungs is called the ___, and its associated pressure is the ____

The volume change in the thoracic cavity occurring during ____ and ___ establishes a pressure gradient between the ___ and the ____ that determines the direction of airflow

Each breath is about__seconds in length. About ___ of air is inspired and then expired during ___ breathing. The volume of air that moves during quiet breathing is associated with small changes in ___ and __ pressures

____ pressure is always lower than____ pressure during both inspiration and expiration

The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract. The volume of the thoracic cavity increases. At this point, the pressure within the lungs is less than the pressure in the atmosphere. Air will flow down the pressure gradient and therefore rush into the lungs

Quiet inspiration ends when the pressure in the lungs is ___ to the pressure in the ___

The diaphragm and external intercostals muscles relax. The recoil of the musculature and return of the ribs to their original position is a passive process that causes the volume of the thoracic cavity to decrease. This then causes the volume within the lungs to decrease. At this point, the pressure within the lungs is greater than the pressure in the atmosphere. Air will flow down the pressure gradient and therefore rush out of the lungs

Expiration ends when the pressure in the lungs is ___ to the pressure in the ___

Controlling Quiet Breathing

The medullary respiratory centers are located in the ___ in the brainstem. These paired centers set the pace for __

___group of the medullary respiratory center contain nerves that innervate the external intercostals and diaphragm. These muscles are used in both ___ & ___

___ group of the medullary respiratory center: contain nerves that innervate all accessory respiratory muscles. This group is active only during ___

___centers are formed by the apneustic and pneumotaxic centers. These centers adjust the ___ and ___ that is established by the medullary respiratory centers of the medulla oblongata

The average range for rate of quiet breathing is about 12 to 15 times per minute and is called___

___ monitor pH changes of cerebrospinal fluid caused by the partial pressure of carbon dioxide

Central chemoreceptors are sensitive to pH in cerebrospinal fluid due to changes in the amount of ___

An increase in the amount of carbon dioxide results in the formation of __ which in turn causes a ___ in pH . When the pH levels decrease (or CO2 increase), the central chemoreceptors respond by causing an___ in depth and rate of breathing. The additional carbon dioxide is ___and the pH levels return to normal.

___ are housed within the walls of the aortic sinus and carotid sinus within the aorta and internal carotid arteries

Peripheral chemoreceptors detect __changes in the blood and changes in __

The peripheral chemoreceptors cause the___ centers to respond by changing ___ of breathing

If blood pH decreases, the ____ chemoreceptors stimulate the respiratory center to___the rate and depth of breathing

If blood oxygen amounts decrease and carbon dioxide amounts increase an thus decrease blood pH, the peripheral chemoreceptors stimulate the ___to ___ the rate and depth of breathing

The most important stimulus to peripheral chemoreceptors affecting breathing rate and depth of breathing is the amount of ___

Stretch receptors initiate a reflex to prevent overstretching of the lungs by inhibiting ___, called the '__'

Protective reflexes:

The voluntary control of __ reflects activity in the cerebral cortex that affects the output from___ centers

__- is the amount of air that moves into and out of the lungs with each breath

Flow is directly related to the pressure gradient between ___ and ___, and becomes __ related to resistance

The___ is the difference between atmospheric pressure and intrapulmonary pressure. This increases during ___

___ includes all the factors that make it more difficult to move air from the atmosphere through the respiratory passageway into the alveoli

Resistance may be altered through a ___ in elasticity of the chest wall and lungs, a change in the __ diameter, and the collapse of __

Increase in ___ occurs if alveolar type II cells are not producing sufficient ___. This may result in the collapse of __ and an increase in ___ to air flow

___of the chest wall and lungs is decreased when there is a ___, arthritis develops within the thoracic cage, or elastic connective tissue is replaced with ___

___ is an indication of the lungs' ability to expand. It is determined by ___ and ___ of the chest wall and lung

___ is an indication of the lungs' ability to stretch and recoil back to its original position and shape

___: breaths per minute.

Resting respiratory rate in humans is about __ breaths/minute

___ is the amount of air that is moved between the atmosphere and alveoli in one minute

A normal adult breathes about __ mL per breath, or __L per minute

___ is the portion of the airways where there is no exchange of respiratory gases; this has an average volume of about ___ mL

The ___ is the amount of air that reaches the alveoli and is available for gas exchange per minute; in the normal adult, this is about ___ L per minute

___ is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled per breath during quiet breathing

___ is the amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled beyond the tidal volume, which is a measure of ___

___ is the amount that can be forcibly exhaled beyond the tidal volume, which is a measure of chest wall and lung __

___ is the amount of air left in the lungs even after the most forceful expiration

__ is the sum of the tidal volume plus both the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes

___ is the sum of all the volumes, including the residual volume

___ is the movement of respiratory gases between blood and either alveoli or cells of systemic tissues

___ is the pressure exerted by each gas within a mixture of gases and is measured in mm Hg; it is written with a P followed by the symbol for the gas

___ is the total pressure all gases exert in the environment. 760 mmHg

___ states that the sum of all partial pressures is equal to the total atmospheric pressure

A ___ exists when the partial pressure for a gas is higher in one region of the respiratory system than in another

The partial pressures relevant for understanding respiratory gas exchange are __ and ___

PO2 in the alveoli is __ mmHg and PCO2 in the alveoli is __mmHg

PO2 in the systemic cells is __ mmHg, and PCO2 in systemic cells is __mmHg

The PO2 and PCO2 in the blood are ___

___ states that at a given temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is dependent upon the partial pressure of the gas in the air and the solubility of the gas in the liquid

___ is more soluble than oxygen, which is more soluble than __

Oxygen diffuses across the ___ from the alveoli into the ___because the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood (40 mmHg) is lower than the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli (104 mHg). Diffusion into the blood continues until the pressure of oxygen is ___ to that in the __

The partial pressure of oxygen in the __ remains the same because it is constantly replaced during __

Carbon dioxide diffuses across the respiratory membrane from the ___ into the ___ because the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood (45 mmHg) is __ than the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the __ (40 mmHg). Diffusion into the alveoli continues until the pressure of __ is equal to that in __

The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveoli remains the same because it is constantly being expelled into the environment during ___

The efficiency of O2 and CO2 diffusion during alveolar gas exchange are dependent upon a large surface area and the minimal thickness of the __

__ is adjusted to fit the rate and location of blood flow. Blood flowing past the alveoli must be adequate to pick up the available __. Matching ventilation into areas of the lung with blood flowing past those alveoli involves ___ of both __ and __

___ (blood flow) is altered by changes in vasodilation and vasoconstriction of pulmonary capillaries

___ respond to changes in oxygen partial pressure and/or carbon dioxide. __ in oxygen or __ in carbon dioxide results in ___, while a decrease in oxygen or carbon dioxide results in ___

Ventilation (airflow) is altered by changes in ___ and __

___ respond to changes in carbon dioxide partial pressure only. Increase in carbon dioxide results in ___, while a decrease in carbon dioxide results in ___.

The effect of perfusion and ventilation to levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide are such that as oxygen levels ___, blood flow ___. And as carbon dioxide levels increase, ___ increases. Both occur simultaneously in areas of the ___ actively engaged in gas exchange - oxygen diffuses into the___ and carbon dioxide diffuses into the ___and into the ___

Oxygen diffuses across the___ from the blood into the ___ because the partial pressure of oxygen in interstitial fluid (40 mmHg) is ___ than the partial pressure of ___ in the blood (95 mHg). Diffusion into the interstitial fluid continues until the pressure of oxygen is equal to that in the interstitial fluid

The partial pressure of oxygen in the interstitial fluid ___ because it is being taken into the cells at the same rate as it diffuses into ___

Carbon dioxide diffuses across the __ from the __ into the __ because the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the interstitial fluid (45 mmHg) is ___ than the partial pressure of ___ in the blood (40 mmHg). Diffusion into the blood continues until the pressure of carbon dioxide is equal to that in the interstitial fluid

The___of carbon dioxide stays the same in the ___ because it is constantly being produced by ___ at the same rate it diffuses into blood

The partial pressure of each gas inside the cell remains relatively constant, except during ___

___ is the movement of respiratory gases within the blood between the lungs and systemic cells

Transport of oxygen is by

The ability of blood to transport oxygen is dependent upon the ___ of oxygen in blood plasma and the presence of __

Since the solubility of oxygen is very __, most of the oxygen in the blood must be carried by Hb within ___

Transport of carbon dioxide is by

70% of the carbon dioxide transported in the blood diffuses into ___ to form ___

The reaction of carbon dioxide with water forms __. This reaction requires an enzyme ___

Carbonic acid immediately dissociates into ___ and a ___

Once generate, the bicarbonate ion exits the erythrocyte. To maintain the charge balance in the erythrocyte, a ___ enters the RBC when the ___- exits the RBC. This is called the ___

The ___ bind to hemoglobin; hemoglobin then serves as a __

When blood reaches the pulmonary capillaries, __ is regenerated from ___

__ transports oxygen attached to iron, carbon dioxide attached to globin, and hydrogen ions bound to the globin

The binding or release of oxygen, carbon dioxide, or hydrogen ions causes a ___

The shape of hemoglobin determines the ability to __or __ another oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen ion

Each hemoglobin can bind ___molecules of oxygen and this binding is ___

The ___ of oxygen loading is the ease with which each additional O2 progressively binds to hemoglobin

When hemoglobin has four oxygen molecules, it is __. When one, two or three molecules of oxygen is bound to hemoglobin, it is ___

____: the graph shows the saturation of hemoglobin as it is plotted against the partial pressure of oxygen

As PO2 ___, the hemoglobin saturation __. - more oxygen is bound to hemoglobin

The oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve relates that a change in PO2 from 20 to 40 mm Hg results in a large increase in ___, while ___ increases in PO2 cause less dramatic increases in hemoglobin saturation.

At pulmonary partial pressure of __mmHg, Hb is almost completely saturated

As it passes through the body during rest, only about ___ of the oxygen is released from hemoglobin for use by ___

The___ is the amount of oxygen that remains bound to hemoglobin after passing through the systemic capillaries

Changes in __, ___ and ___ influence oxygen release from hemoglobin during systemic exchange

___ causes additional oxygen to be released from hemoglobin

___in pH causes additional oxygen to be released

___in carbon dioxide causes additional oxygen to be released

Changes in breathing rate may result in ____

___ is a breathing rate or depth that is increased above the body's demand.

During hyperventilation, PO2 levels ___ and PCO2 levels ___

___ is a decreased concentration of H+ in the blood due to hyperventilation

___ is breathing that is either too slow or too shallow

During hypoventilation, PO2 levels __ and PCO2 levels __

___ results from an increase in blood H+ concentration

While exercising vigorously, a person's___increases while the ___ remains the same

While ___ and ___production increase due to exercise, blood PO2 and PCO2 stay relatively the same

___,___ and___ are able to deliver the additional oxygen needed and eliminate the greater amount of carbon dioxide produced. Supply keeps up with demand.