Chapter 22 Bio 211 Lecture

24 July 2022
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During inhalation,
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the diaphragm and rib muscles contract.
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From which structures do oxygen molecules move from the lungs to the blood?
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In the blood, oxygen is bound to hemoglobin, a protein found in red blood cells.
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After blood becomes oxygenated,
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it returns to the heart, and is pumped to body cells
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Hemoglobin
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is a protein that can bind four molecules of oxygen.
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is a protein that can bind four molecules of oxygen.
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oropharynx
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Which of the following is NOT a function of the nasal conchae? -filtering, heating, and moistening incoming air during inhalation -routing air and food into proper channels -increasing the mucosal surface area exposed to air -reclaiming heat and moisture from expired air
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routing air and food into proper channels
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Which of these cells would be most effective in the ingestion and disposal of microorganisms that may enter the alveoli?
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alveolar macrophages
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What type of epithelial tissue forms the walls of the alveoli?
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simple squamous epithelium
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The indentation on the medial surface of each lung through which pulmonary and systemic blood vessels, bronchi, lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter and leave is called the __________.
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hilum
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Which of the following is the region where the respiratory path has to cross the digestive pathway?
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pharynx
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Which form of hypoxia reflects poor O2 delivery resulting from too few RBCs or from RBCs that contain abnormal or too little hemoglobin?
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anemic hypoxia
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Which of the following is/are part(s) of the respiratory zone structures?
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Alveoli are sites of gas exchange. Along with the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts, the alveoli make up the respiratory zone. The trachea, or windpipe, is simply an air-carrying structure and is much too thick to allow respiratory gases to cross between air and blood. Such gas exchange requires an exceedingly thin respiratory membrane that exists only in air sacs.
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Which of the following best describes Boyle's law. -The partial pressure of a gas in the air you breathe in is equal to the total atmospheric pressure times the fractional concentration of the gas. -How well a gas dissolves in a liquid such as blood depends on both its partial pressure and its solubility. -The pressure of gas in your lungs is inversely proportional to the volume in your lungs.
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The pressure of gas in your lungs is inversely proportional to the volume in your lungs.
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Which muscles, when contracted, would increase the volume of air in the thoracic cavity?
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diaphragm and external intercostals
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Which pressure is the result of the natural tendency of the lungs to decrease their size (because of elasticity) and the opposing tendency of the thoracic wall to pull outward and enlarge the lungs?
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intrapleural pressure
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During an allergic reaction, which of the following would aid respiration?
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epinephrine
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If the transpulmonary pressure equals zero, what will happen to the lung?
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lungs will collapse
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Which of the following pressures rises and falls with the phases of breathing but eventually equalizes with the atmospheric pressure?
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intrapulmonary pressure
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Which of the following pressures must remain negative to prevent lung collapse?
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intrapleural pressure
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Quiet inspiration is __________, and quiet expiration is __________.
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an active process; a passive process. During quiet breathing, inspiration requires muscle actions, while expiration is caused by elastic recoil.
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In pneumothorax, the lung collapses because ______.
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intrapleural pressure is higher than intrapulmonary pressure. Intrapleural pressure (Ppul) is the gas pressure within the pleural cavity, while intrapulmonary pressure (Pip) is the gas pressure within the alveoli. Normally Ppul is less than Pip to maintain lung expansion. If Ppul exceeds Pip, then the lungs collapse.
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What is the most common method of carbon dioxide transport?
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as bicarbonate ions in the plasma. Carbon dioxide reacts with water inside RBCs to form carbonic acid, which dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. About 70% of carbon dioxide travels in the plasma as bicarbonate. It is oxygen, not carbon dioxide, that binds with hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin.
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Which of the following is the primary factor in oxygen's attachment to, or release from, hemoglobin?
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partial pressure of oxygen
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which of the following regions contains the opening of a canal that equalizes pressure in the middle ear?
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nasopharynx
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The division between the upper and lower respiratory system is around the nasopharynx. true or false?
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false. The separation between the upper and lower respiratory system occurs around the larynx.
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Sinuses contain
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open spaces that lighten the skull and may help to warm and humidify air entering the respiratory system. The sinuses are all outside of the nasal cavity, which is where the odor receptors would be found.
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Jane had been suffering through a severe cold and was complaining of a frontal headache and a dull, aching pain at the side of her face. What regions are likely to become sites of secondary infection following nasal infection?
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The paranasal sinuses
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The adenoids normally destroy pathogens because they contain ______.
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lymphocytes. The adenoids (pharyngeal tonsils) are a ring of lymphatic tissue surrounding the entrance to the pharynx. They function to trap inhaled bacteria and facilitate activation of resident lymphocytes.
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Select the correct statement about the pharynx.
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The pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube drains into the nasopharynx.
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Which of the following plays a role in removing particles such as dust from inspired air?
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ciliated mucous lining in the nose
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The olfactory mucosal lining of the nasal cavity contains the receptors for the sense of smell. True or False?
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True
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What part of the larynx covers the laryngeal inlet during swallowing to keep food out of the lower respiratory passages?
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epiglottis
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In children with infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS), the walls of the alveoli cling to each other and make them difficult to inflate. It is common in babies born prematurely. What cells in these infants are NOT fully developed and are NOT doing their job?
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type II alveolar cells. Type II alveolar cells secrete a detergent-like surfactant that lessens the surface tension on the alveolar walls, preventing them from sticking to each other. Infants with IRDS can be treated until their cells produce adequate surfactant.
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The main site of gas exchange is the ________
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alveoli
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Which of the following maintains the patency (openness) of the trachea?
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C-shaped cartilage rings
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The respiratory membrane is a combination of ________.
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alveolar and capillary walls and their fused basement membranes
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conducting zone structures
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R and L main bronchi, Lobar bronchi, Segmental Bronchi, Terminal bronchioles
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Under certain conditions, the vocal folds act as a sphincter that prevents air passage. true or false
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True
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During pleurisy, the inflamed parietal pleura of one lung rubs against the inflamed ______.
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visceral pleura of the same lung
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The lungs are perfused by two circulations: True False
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True. the pulmonary and the bronchial. The pulmonary circulation is for oxygenation of blood. The bronchial circulation supplies blood to the lung structures (tissue).
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Which of the following pressure relationships best illustrates when inspiration will occur?
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Ppul < Patm
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Which muscles are activated during forced expiration?
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the internal intercostal muscles and abdominal wall muscles
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Which muscles are activated during normal quiet inspiration?
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diaphragm and external intercostal muscles
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During inspiration, the external intercostal muscles can work to increase the volume changes that drive ventilation. True or false?
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True
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Complete the following statement using the choices below. Air moves out of the lungs when the pressure inside the lungs is
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greater than the pressure in the atmosphere.
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Which of the following is true regarding normal quiet expiration of air?
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It is a passive process that depends on the recoil of elastic fibers that were stretched during inspiration.
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Intrapulmonary pressure is the ________.
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B) pressure within the alveoli of the lungs
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Which of the choices below describes the forces that act to pull the lungs away from the thorax wall and thus collapse the lungs?
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the natural tendency for the lungs to recoil and the surface tension of the alveolar fluid
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Which respiratory-associated muscles would contract or relax during forced expiration, for example blowing up a balloon?
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internal intercostals and abdominal muscles would contract
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For inspiration of air, which of the following happens first?
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diaphragm descends and rib cage rises
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What is the minute ventilation of an average adult male at rest breathing at a rate of 10 breaths per minute?
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5000 milliliters per minute
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minute ventilation
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the total amount of gas moved in a minute, might not be reduced during rapid shallow breathing, but because much of that gas remains in the dead space, less gas is available for gas exchange. While this would be better than other options, this would not maximize gas exchange.
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What is the amount of air that is normally ventilated in one breath?
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tidal volume
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The alveolar ventilation rate is the best index of effective ventilation. True or False
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true
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During pneumonia, the lungs become "waterlogged"; this means that within the alveoli there is an abnormal accumulation of ______.
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interstitial fluid
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The statement, "in a mixture of gases, the total pressure is the sum of the individual partial pressures of gases in the mixture" paraphrases ________.
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Dalton's law
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Which of the choices below determines the direction of respiratory gas movement?
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partial pressure gradient
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Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the lungs and through all cell membranes by ________.
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diffusion
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what would induce the loss of oxygen from the hemoglobin and the blood?
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a drop in blood PH. The pH in blood tends to drop when plasma reacts with carbon dioxide, a common condition in tissue. This pH drop causes weakening of the Hb-O2 bond, a phenomenon called the Bohr effect.
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Describe the chloride shift
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Bicarbonate is negatively charged and so are chloride ions. As a negative bicarb moves into a RBC, a negative Cl would move out, keeping the charges balanced.
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If your core temperature becomes colder, it is more difficult for oxygen to dissociate with hemoglobin at any PO2. true or false
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True
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With the Bohr effect, more oxygen is released because a(n) ________.
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decrease in pH (acidosis) weakens the hemoglobin-oxygen bond
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describe mechanisms of CO2 transport?
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- bicarbonate ions in plasma -7-10% of CO2 is dissolved directly into the plasma -just over 20% of CO2 is carried in the form of carbaminohemoglobin
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The Bohr effect refers to the unloading of ________ in a RBC due to declining blood pH.
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oxygen
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Oxygenated hemoglobin releases oxygen more readily when the pH is more basic. true or false
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False
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How will the lungs compensate for an acute rise in the partial pressure of CO2 in arterial blood?
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Respiratory rate will increase.
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Respiratory control centers are located in the ________.
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medulla and pons
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Changes in arterial pH can modify respiration rate and rhythm even when carbon dioxide and oxygen levels are normal. True or False
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True
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Hering-Breuer reflex
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a reflex triggered to prevent over-inflation of the lung.
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Strong emotions and pain, acting through the limbic system and hypothalamus, send signals to the respiratory centers that modulate respiratory rate and depth. True or False
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True
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The erythrocyte (red blood cell) count increases after a while when an individual goes from a low to a high altitude because the ________.
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concentration of oxygen and/or total atmospheric pressure is lower at high altitudes
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different forms of lung cancer
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adenocarcinoma squamous cell carcinoma small cell carcinoma
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Which of the disorders below is characterized by destruction of the walls of the alveoli producing abnormally large air spaces that remain filled with air during exhalation?
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emphysema
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In chronic bronchitis, mucus production is decreased and this leads to the inflammation and fibrosis of the mucosal lining of the bronchial tree. true or false?
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false
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Labored breathing is termed dyspnea. True or false?
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true
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The local matching of blood flow with ventilation is ________
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ventilation-perfusion coupling
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what influences hemoglobin saturation?
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temperature partial pressure of carbon dioxide BPG (regulates hemoglobin)
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the Haldane effect
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Oxygenation of blood in the lungs displaces carbon dioxide from hemoglobin which increases the removal of carbon dioxide
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the Bohr effect
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hemoglobin's oxygen binding affinity is inversely related both to acidity and to the concentration of carbon dioxide.
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A patient was admitted to the hospital with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. His PO2 was 65 and PCO2 was 65. A new resident orders pure oxygen via the venturi mask. One hour later, after the oxygen was placed, the nurse finds the patient with no respiration or pulse. She calls for a Code Blue and begins cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Why did the patient stop breathing?
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His arterial PCO2 chemoreceptors had become unresponsive. Declining PO2 levels now act as the stimulus. Increased PO2 levels will prevent this stimulus, and breathing will cease.
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Functions of the respiratory system
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respiration, olfaction and speech
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respiration
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supply body with O2 for cellular respiration: dispose of CO2 a waste product of cellular respiration
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Olfaction
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sense of smell
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respiration has 4 processes
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pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, transport and internal respiration
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pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
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movement of air into and out of the lungs volume changes lead to pressure changes
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external respiration
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exchange of gases between lungs and blood
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transport (process of respiration)
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transport of O2 and CO2 in the blood
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internal respiration (process of respiration)
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exchange of O2 and CO2 between systemic blood vessels and tissues
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pulmonary ventilation and external respiration is a part of which system?
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Respiratory system
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transport and internal respiration are part of which system?
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Circulatory system
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Functional Anatomy of Respiratory System - major organs
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mouth, nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs
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functional anatomy of Respiratory system - upper respiratory
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nose and nasal cavity paranasal sinuses pharynx
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functional anatomy of Respiratory system - lower respiratory
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larynx trachea bronchi and branches lungs and alveoli
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functionally of respiratory system consist of
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conducting and respiratory zones
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conducting zone
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Includes respiratory passageways, cleanses, humidifies and warms incoming air
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respiratory zone
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Respiratory bronchioles to alveoli Site for gas exchange
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Nose divided into 2 regions
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external nose internal nose(nasal cavity)
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suctions of the nose
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1.provides an airway for respiration 2.moistens (humidifies) and warms entering air 3.filters and cleans inspired air 4. serves as resonating chamber for speech 5.houses olfactory recepters
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nasal cavity floor
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bone- hard palate and muscle-soft palate
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nasal cavity -nasal vestibule
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superior to nostrils lines with VIBRASSAE (hairs) that filters coarse particles from inspired air
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respiratory cavity lined with 2 mucous membranes
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1. olfactory mucosa 2. respiratory mucosa
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nasal cavity-oral mucosa
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lines superior nasal cavity and lines olfactory epithelium (smell receptors)
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Nasal Cavity: Respiratory Mucosa
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-lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium -contains mucous (destroy bacteria )and serous glands (helps to humidify the air) -inspired air is warmed by plexus of veins and capillaries -cilia beat backwards towards the pharynx so that mucous can be swallowed -sensory nerve endings of sensitive mucosa triggers sneezing when stimulated by irritating particles
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inside nose
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nasal conchae(filter, heat and moisten air) and nasal meatus(hold mucous)
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paranasal sinuses function
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Lighten skull Secrete mucus Help to warm and moisten air
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Pharynx (throat) has 3 regions
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nasopharynx oropharynx laryngopharynx
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nasopharynx
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-air passageway -lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium -pharyngeal tonsil(adenoids) on posterior wall traps large particles -pharyngotympanic (auditory) tubes drain and equalize pressure in the middle ear
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oropharynx
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-passageway for food and air -lined with stratified squamous epithelium -palatine tonsils line on the lateral wall of the fauces -lingual tonsils on posterior surface of the tongue
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laryngopharynx
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-the third division of the pharynx, is shared by both the respiratory and digestive systems and passageway for food and air. -lined with stratified squamous epithelium
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lower respiratory system
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larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
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Larynx (voice box) three functions
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1.provides patent airway 2.routes air and food into proper channels 3.voice production - houses vocal cords
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larynx cartilages
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-hyaline except for epiglottis (elastic) -thyroid cartilage with laryngeal prominence (Adam's apple) -cricoid cartilage - end of larynx
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Larynx (glottis)
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opening to the larynx (voice box)
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Epiglottis
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a flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue, which is depressed during swallowing to cover the opening of the windpipe, but not the main closer of glottis. vestibular folds ( false vocal cords are).
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How is coughing reflex triggered?
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if something other than air enters the larynx
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Vocal cords(true)
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-folds of tissue within larynx that vibrate and produce sounds -controlled by 7 intrinsic muscles
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glottis
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Opening between vocal cords
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vestibular folds (false vocal cords)
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-Superior to vocal folds -No part in sound production -Help to close glottis during swallowing -controlled by 9 extrinsic muscles to help elevate larynx during swallowing
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below vocal cords epithelium becomes
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ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
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During the Valsalva's maneuver,
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air is temporary held in the respiratory tract by closing the glottis
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trachea
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anterior to the esophagus
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trachea is composed of three layers
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1.mucosa-acts as a mucociliary escalator 2.submucosa - middle layer of connective tissue 3.adventitia - outermost layer that contains 16 - 20 c -shaped rings of hyaline cartilage (open part allows for esophagus expansion).
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trachealis muscle, trachea
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-Connects posterior parts of cartilage rings -Contracts during coughing to expel mucus
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bronchial (respiratory) tree
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the branching of the air passageways in the lungs. (normally branches about 23 times) -left and right primary bronchi>> -lobar secondary bronchi>> -segmental (tertiary)bronchi>> -bronchioles>> -terminal bronchioles
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carina of trachea
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Point at which the trachea divides into left and right primary bronchi
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hilum of the lung
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is an indented area through which the bronchi, pulmonary vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves pass.
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lobes of the lung
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2 on the left 3 on the right
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what ends the conducting zone within the respiratory system?
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the terminal bronchioles
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respiratory zone structures
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-respiratory bronchioles>> -alveolar ducts>> -alveolar sacs>> -alveoli
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respiratory zone structures - respiratory membrane
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-consists of alveolar and capillary walls and their fused basement membranes -single layer of squamous epithelium(type I alveolar cells) -Functions: permit gas exchange by simple diffusion secrete angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
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respiratory zone structure-alveoli
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contain Type II alveolar cells secrete pulmonary surfactant -surrounded by fine elastic fibers and pulmonary capillaries -alveolar pores - equalize pressure in the lungs -alveolar macrophages
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Lungs and Pleura- costal surface
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anterior, lateral , posterior surfaces in contact with the ribs
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Lungs and Pleura-apex
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narrow superior tip which projects slightly above the clavicle
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Lungs and Pleura-base
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inferior surface that rests on the diaphragm
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Lungs and Pleura-hilum
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indentation on mediastinal surface that contains blood vessels, bronchi, lymphatic vessels and nerves
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cardiac notch of left lung
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concavity that accommodates the heart
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each pulmonary lobe carry a
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secondary bronchus with each having bronchopulmonary segments which contain its own artery, vein and semental (tertiary) bronchus
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Lungs are perfused by two circulations
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1. pulmonary circulation(for gas exchange) 2. bronchial circulation(sends oxygenated blood to lung tissue)
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Innervation(Nerve stimulation of a muscle) of the lungs
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-Parasympathetic--> constrict bronchial airways -Sympathetic--> dilate bronchial airways
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the pleurae
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parietal layer lines thoracic cavity visceral layer covers lungs
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pleural fluid
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liquid that surrounds the lungs provides lubrication and surface tension assist in expansion and recoil
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pleurisy (pleuritis)
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inflammation of the pleural membrane characterized by a stabbing pain that is intensified by coughing or deep breathing
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Mechanics of breathing
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inspiration (gases flow into the lungs) expiration (gases exit the lungs)
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atmospheric pressure
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pressure exerted by the air surrounding the body
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intrapulmonary (intralveolar) pressure
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pressure within the alveoli
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intrapleural pressure
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pressure within the pleural cavity which is always a negative pressure
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Lungs collapse if
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intrapleural pressure = atmospheric pressure or intrapulmonary pressure
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atelectasis
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collapsed lung, incomplete expansion of part or all of a lung due to a blockage of the air passages or pneumothorax (air sucked into the intrapleural space)
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Boyle's Law
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pressure is inversely proportional to volume
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Charles' Law
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volume of gas directly proportional to its absolute temperature
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inspiration
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An active process in which the intercostal (rib) muscles and the diaphragm (doing most of the work) contract, rib cage rises and expanding the size of the chest cavity and causing air to flow into the lungs causing thoracic volume increase
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during forced or deep inspiration what muscles are used?
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pectoralis minor sternocleidomastoid scalene the erector spine muscles
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quiet expiration
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passive process achieved by elasticity of the lungs and elasticity of the thoracic cage
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forced expiration
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an active process that uses oblique and transverse abdominal muscles, as well as internal intercostal muscles
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three factor that hinder air passage and pulmonary ventilation
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1.airway resistance 2.alveolar surface tension 3.lung compliance(how easy lungs expand
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airway resistance
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can happen because of severe bronchoconstriction or obstruction of bronchioles
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Epinephrine
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dilates bronchioles and reduces air resistance
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alveolar surface tension
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-actually resists inspiration and promotes expiration
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surface tension
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the attraction of liquid molecules to one another at a liquid - gas interface
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surfactant
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a substance that tends to reduce the surface tension of a liquid in which it is dissolved.
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deeper breaths
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stimulate the type II cells to secrete more surfactant
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(IRDS) infant respiratory distress syndrome
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where there is insufficient quantity of surfactant in premature infants
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lung compliance
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the ease with which lungs can be expanded
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Tidal Volume (TV)
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volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath
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spirometer
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instrument used to measure breathing
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Vital Capacity (VC)
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amount of air exhaled after a maximal inspiration (assesses strength of thoracic muscles and pulmonary function)
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dead space
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The portion of the tidal volume that does not reach the alveoli and thus does not participate in gas exchange. two types: 1.anatomical 2.alveolar
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anatomical dead space
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volume of the conducting respiratory passages (150 ml)
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alveolar dead space
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alveoli that cease to act in gas exchange due to collapse or obstruction
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total dead space
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sum of anatomical and alveolar dead space
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alveolar ventilation (AVR)
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The volume of air that reaches the alveoli. It is determined by subtracting the amount of dead space air from the tidal volume. better indicator of effective ventilation.
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what type of breathing is more effective?
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-slow, deep breathing, increases AVR because lungs are expanded more -rapid, shallow breathing, decreases AVR because most of the inspired air never reaches the exchange sites
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Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
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total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted independently by each gas in the mixture
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Henry's Law
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when a mixture of gases is in contact with a liquid, each gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure and solubility
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CO2 diffuses in equal amounts with
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Oxygen
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Thickness and Surface Area of the Respiratory Membrane
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0.5 to 1 um thick for efficient gas exchange
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external respiration involving the exchange of O2 and Co2 is influenced by 3 things
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1. partial pressure gradients and gas solubilities 2.thickness and surface area of respiratory membrane 3. ventilation-perfusion coupling-matching of alveolar ventilation with pulmonary blood perfusion
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Molecular O2 is carried in blood in two ways:
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- 1.5% is dissolved in plasma - 98.5% is loosely bound to each Fe of hemoglobin (Hb) in RBCs
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oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
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hemoglobin-O2 combination
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deoxyhemoglobin (HHb)
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hemoglobin with no oxygen bound to it
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Loading and unloading of O2 is facilitated by
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change in shape of hemoglobin (Hb)
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factors that influence Hemoglobin (Hb)
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1. P02--(partial pressure of oxygen) reflects the amount of oxygen gas dissolved in the blood. 2.Temperature-active tissue increases temp and more o2 released 3.blood PH (Pco2)-acid -base balance 4. concentration of BPG
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saturation of O2 on arterial blood hemoglobin vs venous blood hemoglobin
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-arterial blood hemoglobin is 98% saturated -venous blood hemoglobin is 75% saturated
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Bohr effect
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The tendency of certain factors to stablize the hemoglobin in the tense conformation, thus reducing its affinity for oxygen and enhancing the relase of oxygen to the tissues. The factors include increased PCO2, increase temperature, increased bisphosphoglycerate (BPG), and decreased pH. Note that the Bohr effect shifts the oxy-hemolobin saturation curve to the right.
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biphosphoglycerate (BPG) synthesis
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byproduct of anaerobic glycolysis of RBCs -BPG binds reversibly with hemoglobin thus more o2 is released
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CO2 transport
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-dissolved in plasma as a gas 7-10% -bound to Hb~20%, carried as carbiminoHb- binds directly to aa's of globin-no competition w O2 -bicarbonate~70% in plasma(in RBC CO2 combines w H2O to form carbonic acid which then dissoc to H+ and HCO3-)
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carbonic anhydrase
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An enzyme present in erythrocytes (as well as in other places) that catalyzes the conversion of CO2 and H2O into carbonic acid (H2CO3).
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The Haldene effect
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blood can transport more carbon dioxide when the PO2 is lower (because CO2 is better able to bind to deoxyhemoglobin)
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Respiration is controlled by
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medulla oblongata and the pons
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stimuli affecting breathing rate and depth
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1. chemical factors 2. higher brain centers (hypothalamus and cerebral motor cortex) 3.pulmonary irritant reflexes 4.inflation reflex (hering-breuer reflex) prevent overinflation of the lungs
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hypercapnia
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-the abnormal buildup of carbon dioxide in the blood >43 mmHg -which results in respiratory acidosis ph <7.35 -results in hyperventilation (increased depth and rapid breathing)
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hypocapnia
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-condition of deficient carbon dioxide (in the blood) <37mmHg -results in respiratory alkalosis ph >7.45 -results in hypoventilation (slow and shallow breathing) could even result in apnea(no breathing) unless CO2 levels rise
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Changes in arterial pH can modify respiration rate and rhythm even when
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carbon dioxide and oxygen levels are normal.
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COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease)
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refers to any disorder in which there is a long-term obstruction of airflow and a substantial reduction in pulmonary ventilation. Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and obstructive emphysema
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Emphysema
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a condition in which the air sacs of the lungs are damaged and enlarged, causing breathlessness.
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chronic bronchitis
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inflammation of bronchi persisting over a long time; type of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) -cilia are immobilized and decreased in number -Goblet cells enlarge and produce excess mucus that leads to obstructive airways -chronic infection and bronchial inflammation occurs
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Asthma
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A chronic allergic disorder characterized by episodes of severe breathing difficulty, coughing, and wheezing. -reversible COPD -often triggered by cold air, exercise or allergens -airway inflammation is an immune response
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TB (tuberculosis)
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Infectious disease caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Most commonly affects the respiratory system and causes inflammation and calcification in the lungs.
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lung cancer
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pulmonary malignancy commonly attributed to 90% of cigarette smoking and cure rate very low
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the three most common types of lung Cancer
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1.squamous cell carcinoma (transformation into bronchial epithelium into stratified squamous 2. adenocarcinoma (mucous glands) 3.small (oat)cell carcinoma (originate in the primary bronchi and metastasize). least common but most dangerous
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by week 28 babies can breath
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on their own.
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at birth, respiratory centers
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are activated, alveoli inflate, and lungs begin to function
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smoking during early teen years
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cause the remaining alveoli to never develop
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lungs begin to mature, and more alveoli are formed until
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young adulthood
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respiratory efficiency decreases
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in old age