AP ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AP TEST REVIEW

enough energy to dislodge electrons from atoms, forming ions; capable of causing cancer (gamma, X-rays, UV)

organized & concentrated; can perform useful work (fossil fuel & nuclear)

disorganized, dispersed (heat in ocean or air wind, solar)

energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another (Law of Conservation of Energy)

when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy, usually heat

unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha particles, and beta particles

the time it takes for ½ the mass of a radioisotope to decay

approximately 10 half-lives

nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons

two isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus (He). Process is expensive; break-even point not reached yet

a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine

slow-acting & long-lasting because the organic remains need time to be decomposed

conservation, increase efficiency, explore alternative energy options

cheaper and can remove more minerals; less hazardous to workers

organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms

removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards

deposit of leached material in lower soil layers (B horizon)

perfect agricultural soil with optimal portions of sand, silt, clay (40%, 40%, 20%)

allowing the use of resources in a responsible manner

setting aside areas and protecting them from human activities

evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, infiltration

any water-bearing layer in the ground

lowering of the water table around a pumping well

near the coast, over-pumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the aquifer

El Niño Southern Oscillation, see-sawing of air pressure over the S. Pacific

trade winds weaken & warm water sloshed back to SA

easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the west coast of South America

upwelling decreases disrupting food chains; N U.S. has mild winters, SW U.S. has increased rainfall, less Atlantic hurricanes

because atmospheric N2 cannot be used directly by plants it must first be converted into ammonia (NH3) by bacteria (rhizobium)

decomposers convert organic waste into ammonia

ammonia (NH3) is converted to nitrate ions (NO3)

inorganic nitrogen is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteins

bacteria convert nitrate (NO3) and nitrite (NO2) back into N2 gas

it does not exist as a gas, but is released by weathering of phosphate (PO4) 3 rocks

the ability to meet the current needs of humanity without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs

How excess phosphorus is added to aquatic ecosystems

plants convert atmospheric carbon (CO2) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6)

O2-consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds and convert C back into CO2

carbonate (CO3) 2 rocks first, oceans second

living and nonliving components of an ecosystem

photosynthetic or chemosynthetic life

indicator of sewage contamination

only 10% of the usable energy is transferred because usable energy lost as heat (second law); not all biomass is digested and absorbed; predators expend energy to catch prey

good= disinfection of water; bad= forms trihalomethanes

development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life or those in which the soil profile is totally destroyed (lava flows); begins with lichen action

life progresses where soil remains (clear-cut forest, fire)

using waste heat to make electricity

symbiotic relationship where both partners benefit

symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits & the other is unaffected

relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the host

large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants & animals

the number of individuals that can be sustained in an area

reproduce early in life; many small unprotected offspring

reproduce late in life; few offspring; care for offspring

when a change in some condition triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition (warmer Earth - snow melts - less sunlight is reflected & more is absorbed, therefore warmer earth)

when a changing in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed condition (warmer earth - more ocean evaporation - more stratus clouds - less sunlight reaches the ground therefore cooler Earth)

said human population cannot continue to increase exponentially; consequences will be war, famine & disease

rule of 70; 70 divided by the percent growth rate

the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (2.1 in developed countries)

~ 6.7 billion

~ 305 million

(demographic transition) birth & death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high

(demographic transition) death rate lower, better health care, population grows fast

(demographic transition) decline in birth rate, population growth slows

(demographic transition) low birth & death rates

broad base = rapid growth; narrow base = negative growth; uniform shape = zero growth

China, India, U.S.

low status of women

family planning, contraception, economic rewards and penalties

97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwater

in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind

agriculture= drip/trickle irrigation; industry= recycling; home= use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures

Point, from specific location such as a pipe. Non-point, from over an area such as runoff

biological oxygen demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials

rapid algal growth caused by an excess of nitrates (NO3) and phosphates (PO4)3 in water

when aquatic plants die, the BOD rises as aerobic decomposers break down the plants, the DO drops & the water cannot support life

(1932-1968, Japan) mental impairments caused by methylmercury (CH3Hg) poisoning

harmful substance that is emitted directly into the atmosphere

organisms that possess favorable adaptations pass them onto the next generation

Source: burning fossil fuels and diesel exhaust Effect: reduces visibility & respiratory irritation Reduction: filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy)

Source: auto exhaust Effects: acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to smog & ozone Equation for acid formation: NO + O2 = NO2 + H2O = HNO3 Reduction: catalytic converter

Source: coal burning Effects: acid deposition, respiratory irritation, damages plants Equation for acid formation: SO2 + O2 = SO3 + H2O = H2SO4 Reduction: scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel)

Source: auto exhaust, incomplete combustion Effects: CO binds to hemoglobin, reducing blood's ability to carry O2; CO2 contributes to global warming Reduction: catalytic converter, emission testing, oxygenated fuel, mass transit

Formation: secondary pollutant, NO2 + uv = NO + O* O* + O2 = O3, with VOCs (volatile organic compounds) Effects: respiratory irritant, plant damage Reduction: reduce NO and VOC emissions O3

naturally occurring colorless, odorless, radioactive gas, found in some types of soil and rock, can seep into homes and buildings, formed from the decay of uranium (U), causes lung cancer, Rn

formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC, O*)

caused by sulfuric and nitric acids (H2SO4, HNO3), resulting in lowered pH of surface waters

Examples: H2O, CO2, O3, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane (CH4). Effect: they trap outgoing infrared (heat) energy, causing Earth to warm

rising sea level (thermal expansion), extreme weather, drought, famine, extinctions

CFCs, methyl chloroform or trichloromethane (CHCl3), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), halon (haloalkanes), methyl bromide (CHBr)— all of which attack stratospheric ozone

increased UV, skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growth

(1950s +) chemicals buried in old canal; school and homes built over it; caused birth defects and cancer

paper; most is landfilled

harmful environmental side effects that are not reflected in a product's price

problem= leachate; solution= liner with collection system problem= methane gas; solution= collect gas and burn problem= volume of garbage; solution= compact and reduce

volume of waste reduced by 90%, and waste heat can be used

toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride, dioxins), scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal (contains heavy metals)

reduce the amounts of waste at the source

species whose role in an ecosystem are more important than others. EG: sea otter, sea stars, grizzly bear, prairie dogs

species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged. EG: trout

small range, large territory, or live on an island

predators, diseases, parasites

chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT); organophosphates (malathion); carbamates (aldicarb)

saves human lives from insect-transmitted disease, increases food supply, increases profits for farmers

genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, biological magnification

better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies, biopesticides, sex attractants

using steam from water boiled by fossils fuels or nuclear reactions; falling water to turn a turbine to power a generator

microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat and pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons

relatively cheap, easily transported, high-quality energy

reserves will be depleted soon; pollution during drilling, transport and refining; burning makes CO2

peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite

core, control rods, steam generator, turbine, containment building

Chernobyl, Ukraine (1986) and Three Mile Island, PA (1979)

wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells

50the amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test population

(in order) causes hereditary changes through mutations; causes fetus deformities; causes cancer

a group of organisms in danger of becoming extinct if the situation is not improved; population numbers have dropped below the critical number of organisms. EG: North spotted owl, Arctic polar bear

non-native species to an area; often thrive and disrupt the ecosystem balance. EG: kudzu vine, purple loosestrife, African honeybee, "killer bee", water hyacinth, fire ant, zebra mussel

(1968 paper by ecologist Garret Hardin) Global commons such as atmosphere and oceans are used by all and owned by none.

at plate boundaries (divergent= spreading, mid-ocean ridges) (convergent= trenches) (transform= sliding, San Andreas)

burning coal, compact fluorescent bulbs

burning coal

the maximum dose that has no measurable effect

layer of dense, cool air trapped under a layer of warm dense air, pollution in trapped layer may build to harmful levels. Frequent in Los Angeles, California and Mexico City, Mexico

process where water is absorbed by plant roots, moves up through plants, passes through pores (stomata) in leaves or other parts, evaporates into atmosphere as water vapor

cultivation of a single crop, usually in a large area

Wheat, rice and corn provide more than ½ of the calories in the food consumed by the world's people

Types - Surface, Crown, Ground (in order) usually burn only under growth and leaf litter on forest floor; hot fires, may start on ground but eventually leap from treetop to treetop; go underground, may smolder for days or weeks, difficult to detect and extinguish. EG: peat bogs

(SMCRA, 1977) requires coal strip mines to reclaim the land

(1991) Suspension of mineral exploration (mining) for 50 years in Antarctica

(SDWA, 1974) set maximum contaminant levels for pollutants in drinking water that may have adverse effects on human health

(CWA, 1972) set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways; aims to make surface waters swimmable and fishable

(ODBA, 1988) bans ocean dumping of sewage sludge and industrial waste in the ocean

(CAA, 1970) set emission standards for cars and limits for release of air pollutants

(KP, 2005) controlling global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed countries

(1987) phase-out of ozone depleting substances

(RCRA)(1976) controls hazardous waste with a cradle to grave system

(CERCLA) (1980) "Superfund", designed to identify and clean up abandoned hazardous waste dump sites

(1982) U.S. government must develop a high level nuclear waste site (Yucca Mountain)

(1973) identifies threatened and endangered species in the U.S., and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations

(CITES) (1973) lists species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products

(1976) Management of marine fisheries

(1996) set pesticide limits in food, and all active and inactive ingredients must be screened for estrogenic/endocrine effects

(NEPA, 1969) Environmental Impact Statements must be completed before any project affecting federal lands can be started

(2004) Seeks to protect human health from the 12 most toxic chemicals (includes 8 chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides/DDT can be used for malaria control)