AP Biology Exam Terms

contain carbon; examples include lipids, proteins, and carbs

amino (NH2), carbonyl (RCOR), carboxyl (COOH), hydroxyl (OH), phosphate (PO4), sulfhydryl (SH)

glycerol and three fatty acids

bad for you; animals and some plants have it; solidifies at room temp.

better for you, plants have it; liquifies at room temp.

lipids whose structures resemble chicken-wire fence. include cholesterol and sex hormones

glycerol + 2 fatty acids + 1 phosphate group; makes up membrane bilayers of cells; hydrophobic interiors and hydrophillic exteriors

used by cells for energy and stucture; monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose), storage polysaccharides (starch [plants], glycogen [animals]), structural polysaccharides (chitin [fungi], cellulose [arthropods])

made with the help of ribosomes out of amino acids; serve many functions (transport, enzymes, cell signals, receptor molecules, structural components, and channels)

catalytic proteins that react in an induced-fit fashion with substrates to speed up that rate of reactions by lowering the activation energy

inhibitor resembles substrate and binds to active site

inhibitor binds elsewhere on the enzyme; alters active site so that the substrate cannot bind

logarithmic scale; <7 acidic, 7 neutral, >7 basic (alkaline); 4 is 10 times more acidic than 5

breaks down compounds by adding water

two components brought together, producing H2O

reaction that requires input of energy

reaction that gives off energy

electron transfer reactions

found in prokaryotes and plant cells eukaryotes; protects and shapes the cell

found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes; regulates what substances enter and leave a cell

found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes; host for protein synthesis; form in nucleolus

found in eukaryotes; lipid synthesis, detoxification, carbohydrate metabolism; contains no ribosomes on cytoplasmic surface

found in eukaryotes; synthesizes proteins to secrete or send to plasma membrane; contains ribosomes on cytoplasmic surface

found in eukaryotes; modifies lipids, proteins to secrete or send to plasma membrane; contains ribosomes on cytoplasmic surface

found in eukaryotes; power plant of cell; hosts major energy-producing steps of respiration

found in eukaryotes; contains enzymes that digest organic compounds; serves as cell's stomach

found in eukaryotes; control center of cell; host for transcription, replication, and DNA

found in eukaryotes; breakdown of fatty acids, detoxification of alcohol

found in plant cells eukaryotes; site of photosynthesis in plants

found in eukaryotes; skeleton of cell; consists of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments

large in plant cells and small in animal cells; storage vaults of cells

found in animal cells eukaryote; part of microtubule separation apparatus that assits cell division in animal cells

plasma membrane is selectively permeable phosolipid bilayer with proteins of various lengths and sizes interspersed with cholesterol amoung the phospholipids

proteins implanted within lipid bilayer of plasma membrane

passive movement of substances down their concentration gradient (from high to low concentrations)

passive movement of water from the side of low solute concentration to the side of high solute concentration

assisted transport of particles across membrane (no energy input)

movement of substances against concentration gradient (low to high concentrations; requires energy input)

phagocytosis of particles into cell through the use of vesicles

process by which particles are ejected from the cell, similar to movement in a trash chute

glycolysis -> krebs cycle -> oxidative phosphorylation -> 36 ATP per glucose molecule

glycolysis -> regenerate NAD+ -> 2 ATP per glucose molecule

conversion of 1 glucose molecule into 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH; occurs in the cytoplasma, and in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration; must have NAD+ to proceed

conversion 1 pyruvate molecule into 4 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP, H2O, and CO2; occurs twice for each glucose to yeild double the products above; occurs in the mitochondria

production of large amounts of ATP from NADH and FADH2; occurs in the mitochrondria; requires the presence of oxygen to proceed

coupling of the movement of electrons down the ETC with the formation of ATP using the driving force provided by the proton gradient; occurs in both cell respiration and photosynthesis to produce ATP

enzyme responsible for using protons to actually produce ATP from ADP

process that regenerates NAD+ so glycolsis can begin again; occurs in absence of oxygen

occurs in fungi, yeast, and bacteria; causes conversion of pyruvate to ethanol

occurs in humans and animal muscles; causes conversion of pyruvate -> lactate; causes cramping sensation when oxygen runs low in muscles

process by which plants use the energy from light to generate sugar; occurs in chloroplasts; light reactions (thylakoid), and Calvin cycle (stroma)

self-nourishing organism that is also known as a producer (plants)

organisms that must consume other organisms to obtain energy--consmers

loss of water via evaporation through the stomata

process by which ATP is made during light reactions

process by which water is split into hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms (light reactions)

structure through which CO2 enters a plant, and water vapor and oxygen leave plant

molcule that absorbs light of a particular wavelength (chlorophyll, carotenoid, phycobilins)

plants that have adapted their photosynthetic process to more efficiently handle hot and dry conditions

process that first converts CO2 into a 4-carbon molcule in the mesophyll cells, converts that product to malate and then shuttles it to the bundle sheath cells, where the malate releases CO2 and rubisco picks it up as if all were normal

plants close their stomata during the day, collect CO2 at night, and store the CO2 in the form of acids until it is needed during the day for photosynthesis

prokaryotic cell division; double the DNA, double the size, then split apart

growth 1 -> synthesis -> growth 2 -> mitosis

physical separation of newly formed daughter cells of cell division

growth factors, checkpoints, density-dependent inhibition, and cyclins and protein kinases

factors then when present, promote growth, and when absent, impede growth

a cell stops growing to make sure it has the nutrients and raw materials to proceed

cell stops growing when certain density is reached

cyclin combines with CDK to form a structure known as MPF that pushes cell into mitosis when enough is present

one copy of each chromosome

two copies of each chromosome

chromosomes that are similar in shape, size, and function

the process of male gamete formation (four sperm from one cell)

the process of female gamete formation (one ovum from each cell)

sequences of events that make up the reproductive cycle of an organism

zygote (2n) -> multicellular orgainsm (2n) -> gametes (n) -> zygote (2n)

zygote (2n) -> multicellular orgainsm (n) -> gametes (n) -> zygote (2n)

zygote (2n) -> sporophyte (2n) -> spores (n) -> gametophyte (n) -> gametes (n) -> zygote (2n)

crossover, 2^n possible gametes that can be formed, random pairing of gametes

heritable feature, such as flower color

cross involving one character (3:1 phenotype ratio)

cross involving two different characters (9:3:3:1 phenotype ratio)

the two alleles for a trait separate during the formation of gametes--one to each gamete

inheritance of one trait does not interfere with the inheritance of another trait

if two opposite pure-breeding varieties are crossed, all offspring resemble dominant parent

heterozygous individual shows characterstics unlike either parent

Yy produces a intermediate phenotype between YY and yy

both alleles express themselves fully in a Yy individual

traits that are affected by more then one gene (eye color or skin color)

traits that correspond to more than two alleles

a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at another locus

a single gene has multiple effects on an organism

males are XY, females are XX

chromosome not involved in gender

passed along the X chromosome; more common in males then females

one of two X chromosomes is randomly inactivated and remains coiled as a Barr body

trait that is inherited via the Y chromosome

genes that lie along the same chromsome and do not follow the law of independent assortment

a form of genetic recombination that occurs during prophase I of meiosis

genetic map put together using crossover frequencies

family tree used to describe genetic relationships

Tay-Sachs, Cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, phenylketonuria

Huntington disease and achondroplasia

error in which homologous chromosomes do not separate properly

deletion, inversions, duplications, and translocations

contains A, G, C, and T; arranged in double helix of two strands held together by hydrogen bonds

contains A, G, C, and U; singled stranded

blueprints for proteins

brings acids to ribosomes

make of ribosomes

occurs in S-phase, semiconservative, built in 5' to 3' direction

deletion or addition of nucleotides; shifts reading frame

subsitution of wrong nucleotide into DNA; still produces a protein

subsitution of wrong nucleotide into DNA that produces an early stop codon

process by which mRNA is synthesized on a DNA template

introns (noncoding) are spliced out, exon (coding) glued together

process by which the mRNA specified sequence of amino acids is lined up on a ribosome for protein synthesis

triplet of nucleotides that codes for a particular amino acid

base sequence that signals start site for transcription

protein that prevents the binding of RNA polymerase to promoter site

molecule that binds to and inactivates a repressor

short sequence near the promoter that assists in transcription by interacting with transcription factors

on/off switch for transcription, allows for production of genes only when needed

parastic infectious agent unable to survive outside the host; can obtain DNA or RNA, or have a viral envelope

one in which the virus is actively reproducing and kills the host cell

one in which the virus lie dormant within the DNA of the host cell

RNA virus that carries with it reverse transcriptase (HIV)

virus that converts host brain proteins into misshapen proteins

tiny plant viruses

virus that infects bacteria

prokaryotic cell consists of one double strand circular DNA molecule; reproduce by binary fission

uptake of foreign DNA from the surrounding environment

movement of genes from one cell to another by phages, which incorporated by crossover

lytic cycle accidently places host DNA into a phage, which is brought to another cell

virus leaving lysogenic cycle brings host DNA with it into phage

transfer of DNA between two bacterial cell connected by sex pili

enzymes that cut DNA at a paticular sequences, creating sticky ends

mover of DNA from one source to another

somewhat slow process by which a desired sequence of DNA is copied numerous times

technique used to separate DNA according to size. DNA moves from - to +

produces large quanties of sequence in short amount of time

genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, natural selection

change in allele frequencies because of chance events

change in allele frequencies as genes move from one population to another

change in allele frequencies due to random genetic change in an allele

process by which characters or traits maintained or eliminated in a population based on their contribution to the differential survival and reproductive succes of their "host" organism

differences must exist between individuals

the traits to be selected for must be able to be passed along to offspring

there must be variation amoung parents in how many offspring they produce as a result of the different traits that the parent have

a trait that, if altered, affects the fitness of an organism

directional, stabilizing, disruptive, sexual, and artifical

members at one end of a spectrum are selected against, and the population shifts toward that end

selection for the mean of the population; reduces variation of a population

selects for the two extremes of the population; selects against the middle

certain characters are selected for because they aid in mate acquisition

human intervention in the form of selective breeding

random changes in DNA can introduce new alleles into a population

the maintainance of two or more phenotypic variants

interbreeding stops because some physical barrier splits the population into two

interbreeding stops even though no physical barrier prevents it

condition in which individual has higher than normal number of chromosomes sets

two phenotypic variants become so different that the two groups stop interbreeding

rapid series of speciation events that occur when one or more ancestral species invades a new environment

p + q = 1, p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1; evolution is not occuring; the rules for this are no mutations, no gene flow, no genetic drift, no natural selection, and random mating

traits similar between organisms that arose from a common ancestor

character contained by organism that is no longer functionally useful

evolutionary change is slow and steady process

evolutionary change occurs in rapid bursts separated by large periods of no change

theory that describes how life evolved from original heterotrophs

traits similar to two or more organisms that do not share common ancestor; parallel evolution

two unrelated species evolve in a way that makes them more similar

two related spevies evolve in a way that makes them less similar

classification of organisms based upon the presence or absence of shared characterstics: kingdom -> phylum -> class -> order -> family -> genus -> species

monera -> Protista -> plantae -> Fungi -> animalia

Archaebacteria -> Eubacteria -> Protista -> Planae -> Fungi -> Animalia

eukaryotes originated from symbiotic partnership of prokaryotic cells

tissue systems are divided into ground, vascular, and dermal

the body of the plants is divided into collenchyma cells, parenchyma cells, and sclerenchyma cells

provide flexible and mechanical support; found in stems and leaves

play a role in storage, secrection, and photosynthesis in cells

protects seeds and support the plants

xylem and phloem

transports water and minerals in plants

transports sugar in plants

protective outer coating for plants: epidermis

taproot system and fibrous root system

dicots; system that divides into lateral roots that anchor the plant

anchoring systsem that does not go deep down into the soil

increased length of plants (occurs in region of apical meristem)

increased width of plant (occurs in region of lateral meristems)

gives rise to secondary xylem/phloem; runs entire length of plant

produces protective covering that replaces epidermis during secondary growth

abscisic acid, auxin, cytokinins, ethylene, gibberellins

inhibits cell growth, helps close stomata

stem elongation, gravitrophism, phototropism

promote cell division, leaf enlargement, slow aging of leaves

ripens fruit and causes leaves to fall

stem elongation, induce growth in dormant seeds, buds, flowers

gravitropism, phototrophism, thigmotropism

a plant's growth in response to gravity

plant's growth in response to light

plant's growth in response to touch

response of a plant to the change in length of days

bloodflow= left side of heart -> aorta -> via arteries to organs and muscles -> into vena cava -> right side of heart -> lungs -> left side of heart

nose/mouth -> pharynx -> larynyx -> trachea -> bronchi -> bronchioles -> alveoli

digestion begins in mouth, continues in the stomach, and completes in the intestine

enzyme that breaks down starches in the diet

main digestive enzyme of the stomach that breaks down proteins

major fat digesting enzyme of the body

major protein digesting endopeptidases of the small intestine

major emulsifer of fat

carbohydrate digesting enzymes of the small intestines

most of the digestion and absorption of food occurs in the _________

reabsorbs water and packs the indigestible food into feces

kidneys -> minor and major calyces -> renal pelvis -> bladder via the ureter -> out of the body via the urethra

functional part of the kidney

ADH and aldosterone

controls water absorption in the excretory system

controls sodium reabsorption in the excretory system

FSH, LH, TSH, STH, ACTH, and prolactin

stimulates production of eggs or sperm

stimulates ovulation, increases estrogen/progesterone release

increases release of thyroid hormone

increases growth

increases secrection of adrenal cortical hormones

controls lactogenesis, decreases secretion of GnRH

insulin and glucagon

increases glycogen formation

increases glycogen breakdown

increases blood Ca2+ involved in bone maintenance

ADH and oxytocin

stimulates uterine contraction and milk ejection

aldosterone and cortisol

regulates blood sodium concentration

chronic stress hormone

progestrone, estrogen, and testosterone

involved in menstrual cycle and pregnancy

made in ovaries; increases release of LH; develops female secondary sex characteristics

stimulates sperm production; develops male secondary sex characterstics

hormone acts to directly, or indirectly, inhibit further release of the hormone of interest

horomone acts directly, or indirectly, cause increased secretion of the hormone

controls skeletal muscles and voluntary actions

controls involuntary activities of body

controls coordination and balance

controls involuntary actions such as breathing

regulates hunger, thirst, and temperature

emotion control center

nonspecific prevention of enterance of invaders into the body

multilayered defense mechanism-- first line of defense: phagocyctes, macrophages, neutrophils, complement; second line of defense: B cells and T cells

antigen invader -> B cell meets antigen -> B cell differentiates into the plasma cells and memory cells -> plamsa cells produce anitbodies -> antibodies eliminate antigen

antigen invader -> memory cells recogize antigen and pump out antibodies much quicker than primary response -> antibodies eliminate antigen

involves T cells and direct cellular response to an invasion. defense against viruses

sexual organs that assist in reproduction

physical characteristics that differ men and women

stimulate oogenesis in females and spermatogenesis in males; creates follicle that surrounds the primary oocyte during development

stimulates the ovulation and production of estrogen and progesterone in females; stimulates production of testosterone and sperm in males

causes pituitary to release LH and FSH

the study of interaction between animals and their environment

study of animal behavior

preprogrammed response to a stimulus

loss of responsiveness to unimportant stimuli or stimuli that provide no feedback

innate behavior learned during critical period early in life

one stimulus is associated with another (classical conditioning)

trial-and-error learning

ability to reason through a problem the first time through with no prior experience

learning by watching someone else do it first

change in the speed of movement in response to a stimulus; organisms will move faster in bad environments and slower in good environments

cyclic movement of animals over long distances according to the time of year

reflex movement toward or away from a stimulus

conflict behavior over access to a resource; often a matter of which aniaml can mount the most threatening display and scare the other into submission

ranking of power amoung the members of a group; subject to change

defense of territory to keep others out

action in which an organism helps another at its own expense

animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives

feeding behavior of an individual

natural selection favors those who choose foraging strategies that maximize the differential betwen cost and benefits

the ability of individuals to pass their genes not only through the production of their offspring, but also by providing aid to enable closely related individuals to produce offspring

communication through the use of chemical signals, such as pheramones

communication through the visual cues, such as the tail feather displays of peacocks

communication through the use of sound, such as the chirping of frogs in the summer

communication through the use of touch, such as a handshake

collection of individuals of the same species living in the same geographic region

collection of populations of species in a geographic area

community and its environment

communities and the ecosystems of the planet

living organisms of ecosystem

nonliving players in an ecosystem

maximum growth rate for a population

maximum number of individuals that a population can sustain in a given environment

factors that keep population size in check

one organism benefits at another's expense

one organism benefits while the other is unaffected

both organisms reap benefits from the interaction

both species are harmed by the interaction

one species, the predator, hunts the other, the prey

colring scheme that allows organism to blend into colors of environment

patterns that cause an animal to appear larger or more dangerous than it really is

warning coloration adopted by animals that posses a chemical defense mechanism

animal that is harmless copies the apperance of an animal that is dangerous

two aposemetrically colored species have similar coloration pattern

occurs in area devoid of life that contains no soil

occurs in area that once had stable life but was disturbed by major force fire

driest land biome

lengthy cold, wet winters; lots of conifers

most fertile soil of all biomes

permafrost, cold winters, short shrubs

grasslands, home to herbivores

cold winters and warm summers

great diversity of species in biomes

freshwater and marine biomes

hierarchy of energy levels on a planet