American Government

formal institutions and procedures through which a territory and its people are ruled

conflict over the leadership, structure and policies of governments

the ability to influence government and politics

informed and active membership in a political community

a form of government in which a single individual rules (king, queen, or dictator)

a form of government in which a small group controls most of the governing decisions (landowners, military officers, or wealthy merchants)

a system of rule that permits citizens to play a significant part in the governmental process, usually through the election of key public officials

a system of rule in which formal and effective limits are placed on the powers of government

a system of rule in which the government recognizes no formal limits but may nevertheless be restrained by the power of other social institutions

A system of rule in which the government recognizes no formal limits on its power and seeks to absorb or eliminate other social institutions that might challenge it

influence over a government's leadership, organization, or policies. (page 15)

a system of government in which the populace selects representatives, who play a significant role in governmental decision making. (page 15)

a system of rule that permits citizens to vote directly on laws and policies. (page 15)

the theory that all interests are and should be free to compete for influence in the government; the outcome of this competition is compromise and moderation. (page 16)

broadly shared values, beliefs, and attitudes about how the government should function. American political culture emphasizes the values of liberty, equality, and democracy. (page 23)

freedom from governmental control. (page 24)

a principle of constitutional government; a government whose powers are defined and limited by a constitution. (page 24)

an economic system in which the means of production and distribution are privately owned and operated for profit with minimal or no government interference. (page 24)

America's first written constitution; served as the basis for America's national government until 1789. (page 42)

a system of government in which states retain sovereign authority except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. (page 42)

a framework for the Constitution, introduced by Edmund Randolph, that called for representation in the national legislature based on the population of each state. (page 45)

a framework for the Constitution, introduced by William Paterson, that called for equal state representation in the national legislature regardless of population. (page 45)

the agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that gave each state an equal number of senators regardless of its population, but linked representation in the House of Representatives to population. (page 46)

the agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that stipulated that for purposes of the apportionment of congressional seats, every slave would be counted as three-fifths of a person. (page 48)

mechanisms through which each branch of government is able to participate in and influence the activities of the other branches; major examples include the presidential veto power over congressional legislation, the power of the Senate to approve presidential appointments, and judicial review of congressional enactments. (page 49)

the presidential electors from each state who meet after the popular election to cast ballots for president and vice president. (page 50)

the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791; they ensure certain rights and liberties to the people. (page 50)

the division of governmental power among several institutions that must cooperate in decision making. (page 50)

a system of government in which power is divided, by a constitution, between a central government and regional governments. (page 50)

specific powers granted by the Constitution to Congress. (Article I, Section 8) and to the president. (Article II). (page 51)

Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution. (also known as the necessary and proper clause), which enumerates the powers of Congress and provides Congress with the authority to make all laws 'necessary and proper' to carry them out. (page 51)

having a legislative assembly composed of two chambers or houses; distinguished from unicameral. (page 52)

the power of the courts to review and, if necessary, declare actions of the legislative and executive branches invalid or unconstitutional; the Supreme Court asserted this power in Marbury v. Madison. (page 53)

Article VI of the Constitution, which states that laws passed by the national government and all treaties are the supreme law of the land and superior to all laws adopted by any state or any subdivision. (page 53)

those who favored a strong national government and supported the Constitution proposed at the American Constitutional Convention of 1787. (page 56)

those who favored strong state governments and a weak national government and who were opponents of the Constitution proposed at the American Constitutional Convention of 1787. (page 56)

a series of essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay supporting ratification of the Constitution. (page 57)

oppressive government that employs cruel and unjust use of power and authority. (page 59)

a principle of constitutional government; a government whose powers are defined and limited by a constitution. (page 59)

a change added to a bill, law, or constitution. (page 62)

a system of government in which power is divided, by a constitution, between a central government and regional governments. (page 77)

a centralized government system in which lower levels of government have little power independent of the national government. (page 77)

a system of government in which the national government shares power with lower levels of government, such as states. (page 77)

specific powers granted by the Constitution to Congress. (Article I, Section 8) and to the president. (Article II). (page 77)

powers derived from the necessary and proper clause of Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution. Such powers are not specifically expressed, but are implied through the expansive interpretation of delegated powers. (page 77)

Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which provides Congress with the authority to make all laws 'necessary and proper' to carry out its expressed powers. (page 77)

powers, derived from the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, that are not specifically delegated to the national government or denied to the states. (page 78)

power reserved to the state government to regulate the health, safety, and morals of its citizens. (page 78)

authority possessed by both state and national governments, such as the power to levy taxes. (page 78)

provision, from Article IV, Section 1, of the Constitution, requiring that the states normally honor the public acts and judicial decisions that take place in another state. (page 79)

provision, from Article IV, Section 2, of the Constitution, that a state cannot discriminate against someone from another state or give its own residents special privileges. (page 79)

power delegated by the state to a local unit of government to manage its own affairs. (page 80)

the system of government that prevailed in the United States from 1789 to 1937, in which most fundamental governmental powers were shared between the federal and state governments. (page 82)

Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which delegates to Congress the power 'to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States and with the Indian tribes.' This clause was interpreted by the Supreme Court in favor of national power over the economy. (page 85)

the principle that the states should oppose the increasing authority of the national government. This principle was most popular in the period before the Civil War. (page 87)

programs through which Congress provides money to state and local governments on the condition that the funds be employed for purposes defined by the federal government. (page 91)

congressional grants given to states and localities on the condition that expenditures be limited to a problem or group specified by law. (page 91)

grant programs in which state and local governments submit proposals to federal agencies and for which funding is provided on a competitive basis. (page 91)

grants-in-aid in which a formula is used to determine the amount of federal funds a state or local government will receive. (page 91)

a type of federalism existing since the New Deal era in which grants-in-aid have been used strategically to encourage states and localities. (without commanding them) to pursue nationally defined goals. Also known as 'intergovernmental cooperation.' (page 92)

a form of federalism in which Congress imposes legislation on states and localities, requiring them to meet national standards. (page 94)

the principle that allows the national government to override state or local actions in certain policy areas; in foreign policy, the willingness to strike first in order to prevent an enemy attack. (page 94)

regulations or conditions for receiving grants that impose costs on state and local governments for which they are not reimbursed by the federal government. (page 95)

a policy to remove a program from one level of government by delegating it or passing it down to a lower level of government, such as from the national government to the state and local governments. (page 96)

federal grants-in-aid that allow states considerable discretion in how the funds are spent. (page 96)

attempts by Presidents Nixon and Reagan to return power to the states through block grants. (page 96)

the process by which one unit of government yields a portion of its tax income to another unit of government, according to an established formula. Revenue sharing typically involves the national government providing money to state governments. (page 97)

economic policies designed to control the economy through taxing and spending, with the goal of benefiting the poor. (page 98)

a court order demanding that an individual in custody be brought into court and shown the cause for detention. (page 115)

a law that declares a person guilty of a crime without a trial. (page 115)

laws that declare an action to be illegal after it has been committed. (page 115)

the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791; they ensure certain rights and liberties to the people. (page 116)

areas of personal freedom with which governments are constrained from interfering. (page 116)

the process by which different protections in the Bill of Rights were incorporated into the Fourteenth Amendment, thus guaranteeing citizens protection from state as well as national governments. (page 117)

the First Amendment clause that says that 'Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion.' This law means that a 'wall of separation' exists between church and state. (page 119)

a rule articulated in Lemon v. Kurtzman that government action toward religion is permissible if it is secular in purpose, neither promotes nor inhibits the practice of religion, and does not lead to 'excessive entanglement' with religion. (page 120)

the First Amendment clause that protects a citizen's right to believe and practice whatever religion he or she chooses. (page 121)

test to determine whether speech is protected or unprotected, based on its capacity to present a 'clear and present danger' to society. (page 123)

speech accompanied by conduct such as sit-ins, picketing, and demonstrations. Protection of this form of speech under the First Amendment is conditional, and restrictions imposed by state or local authorities are acceptable if properly balanced by considerations of public order. (page 126)

an effort by a governmental agency to block the publication of material it deems libelous or harmful in some other way; censorship. In the United States, the courts forbid prior restraint except under the most extraordinary circumstances. (page 126)

a written statement made in 'reckless disregard of the truth' that is considered damaging to a victim because it is 'malicious, scandalous, and defamatory.' (page 127)

an oral statement made in 'reckless disregard of the truth' that is considered damaging to the victim because it is 'malicious, scandalous, and defamatory.' (page 127)

speech that directly incites damaging conduct. (page 130)

the right of every citizen against arbitrary action by national or state governments. (page 133)

the ability of courts to exclude evidence obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment. (page 134)

jury that determines whether sufficient evidence is available to justify a trial; grand juries do not rule on the accused's guilt or innocence. (page 136)

the Fifth Amendment right providing that a person cannot be tried twice for the same crime. (page 138)

the requirement, articulated by the Supreme Court in Miranda v. Arizona, that persons under arrest must be informed prior to police interrogation of their rights to remain silent and to have the benefit of legal counsel. (page 139)

the right of government to take private property for public use. (page 139)

the right to be left alone, which has been interpreted by the Supreme Court to entail free access to birth control and abortions. (page 143)

the use of any unreasonable and unjust criterion of exclusion. (page 157)

obligation imposed on government to take positive action to protect citizens from any illegal action of government agencies and of other private citizens. (page 157)

provision of the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteeing citizens 'the equal protection of the laws.' This clause has been the basis for the civil rights of African Americans, women, and other groups. (page 157)

one of three Civil War amendments; it abolished slavery. (page 159)

one of three Civil War amendments; it guaranteed equal protection and due process. (page 159)

one of three Civil War amendments; it guaranteed voting rights for African American men. (page 159)

laws enacted by southern states following Reconstruction that discriminated against African Americans. (page 160)

doctrine that public accommodations could be segregated by race but still be considered equal. (page 161)

the 1954 Supreme Court decision that struck down the 'separate but equal' doctrine as fundamentally unequal. This case eliminated state power to use race as a criterion of discrimination in law and provided the national government with the power to intervene by exercising strict regulatory policies against discriminatory actions. (page 164)

a test used by the Supreme Court in racial discrimination cases and other cases involving civil liberties and civil rights that places the burden of proof on the government rather than on the challengers to show that the law in question is constitutional. (page 165)

literally, 'by law'; refers to legally enforced practices, such as school segregation in the South before the 1960s. (page 165)

literally, 'by fact'; refers to practices that occur even when there is no legal enforcement, such as school segregation in much of the United States today. (page 165)

the apportionment of voters in districts in such a way as to give unfair advantage to one racial or ethnic group or political party. (page 173)

a practice in which banks refuse to make loans to people living in certain geographic locations. (page 175)

a test used by the Supreme Court in gender discrimination cases that places the burden of proof partially on the government and partially on the challengers to show that the law in question is unconstitutional. (page 178)

government policies or programs that seek to redress past injustices against specified groups by making special efforts to provide members of those groups with access to educational and employment opportunities. (page 190)

citizens' attitudes about political issues, leaders, institutions, and events. (page 205)

basic principles that shape a person's opinions about political issues and events. (page 205)

a cohesive set of beliefs that forms a general philosophy about the role of government. (page 205)

a specific preference on a particular issue. (page 205)

freedom from governmental control. (page 206)

a widely shared American ideal that all people should have the freedom to use whatever talents and wealth they have to reach their fullest potential. (page 207)

a system of rule that permits citizens to play a significant part in the governmental process, usually through the election of key public officials. (page 207)

the induction of individuals into the political culture; learning the underlying beliefs and values on which the political system is based. (page 208)

social institutions, including families and schools, that help to shape individuals' basic political beliefs and values. (page 209)

a distinctive pattern of voting behavior reflecting the differences in views between women and men. (page 210)

a political ideology that emphasizes freedom and voluntary association with small government. (page 216)

a political ideology that emphasizes social ownership or collective government ownership and strong government. (page 216)

today this term refers to those who generally support social and political reform; extensive governmental intervention in the economy; the expansion of federal social services; more vigorous efforts on behalf of the poor, minorities, and women; and greater concern for consumers and the environment. (page 217)

today this term refers to those who generally support the social and economic status quo and are suspicious of efforts to introduce new political formulae and economic arrangements. Conservatives believe that a large and powerful government poses a threat to citizens' freedom. (page 218)

the public forum in which beliefs and ideas are exchanged and compete. (page 224)

scientific instruments for measuring public opinion. (page 228)

a small group selected by researchers to represent the most important characteristics of an entire population. (page 228)

a method used by pollsters to select a representative sample in which every individual in the population has an equal probability of being selected as a respondent. (page 230)

a polling method in which respondents are selected at random from a list of ten-digit telephone numbers, with every effort made to avoid bias in the construction of the sample. (page 230)

polling error that arises based on the small size of the sample. (page 230)

the effect that results when respondents in a survey report what they expect the interviewer wishes to hear rather than what they believe. (page 237)

polling error that arises when the sample is not representative of the population being studied, which creates errors in over representing or under representing some opinions. (page 239)

a polling technique in which the questions are designed to shape the respondent's opinion. (page 240)

a shift in electoral support to the candidate whom public opinion polls report as the front-runner. (page 241)

a proposition predicting that when policy options can be arrayed along a single dimension, majority rule will pick the policy most preferred by the voter whose ideal policy is to the left of half of the voters and to the right of exactly half of the voters. (page 242)

television, radio, or other media that transmit audio and/or video content to the public. (page 253)

cheap, tabloid-style newspaper produced in the nineteenth century, when mass production of inexpensive newspapers first became possible due to the steam-powered printing press; a penny press cost one cent compared to other papers, which cost more than five cents. (page 256)

an application or feed that collects Web content such as news headlines, blogs, podcasts, online videos, and more in one location for easy viewing. (page 256)

a daily Internet user with regular access to high-speed Internet connections and the technology and literacy skills to participate online for employment, news, politics, entertainment, commerce, and other activities. (page 258)

news reporting devoted to a targeted portion. (subset) of a journalism market sector or for a portion of readers/viewers based on content or ideological presentation. (page 258)

news reported and distributed by citizens, rather than professional journalists and for-profit news organizations. (page 259)

Web-based and mobile-based technologies that are used to turn communication into interactive dialogue between organizations, communities, and individuals; social media technologies take on many different forms including blogs, Wikis, podcasts, pictures, video, Facebook, Twitter, and more. (page 261)

the ownership and control of the media by a few large corporations. (page 269)

the power of the media to bring public attention to particular issues and problems. (page 272)

the tendency to focus news coverage on only on aspect of an event or issue, avoiding coverage of over aspects. (page 273)

the power of the media to influence how events and issues are interpreted. (page 275)

process of preparing the public to take a particular view of an event or political actor. (page 276)

a disclosure of confidential information to the news media. (page 278)

the requirement that broadcasters provide candidates for the same political office equal opportunities to communicate their messages to the public. (page 284)

a Federal Communications Commission regulation giving individuals the right to have the opportunity to respond to personal attacks made on a radio or television broadcast. (page 284)

a Federal Communications Commission requirement for broadcasters who air programs on controversial issues to provide time for opposing views; the FCC ceased enforcing this doctrine in 1985. (page 285)

activities designed to influence government including voting and face-to-face activities such as protesting or volunteering for a campaign. (page 295)

participation that involves assembling crowds to confront a government or other official organization. (page 296)

activities designed to influence government using the Internet, including visiting a candidate's website, organizing events online, or signing an online petition. (page 297)

the right to vote; also called franchise. (page 305)

the percentage of eligible individuals who actually vote. (page 306)

status in society based on level of education, income, and occupational prestige. (page 309)

the process by which large numbers of people are organized for a political activity. (page 311)

the option in some states to register on the day of the election, at the polling place, rather than in advance of the election. (page 318)

the option in some states to have a ballot sent automatically to your home for each election, rather than having to request an absentee ballot each time. (page 319)

the option in some states to cast a vote at a polling place or by mail before the election. (page 319)

a distinctive pattern of voting behavior reflecting the differences in views between women and men. (page 324)

organized groups that attempt to influence the government by electing their members to important government offices. (page 341)

a political system in which only two parties have a realistic opportunity to compete effectively for control. (page 342)

the point in history when a new party supplants the ruling party, becoming in turn the dominant political force; in the United States, this has tended to occur roughly every 30 years. (page 349)

the condition in American government wherein the presidency is controlled by one party while the opposing party controls one or both houses of Congress. (page 350)

the division between the two major parties on most policy issues, with members of each party unified around their party's positions with little crossover. (page 351)

parties that organize to compete against the two major American political parties. (page 352)

the formal structure of a political party, including its leadership, election committees, active members, and paid staff. (page 355)

a normally closed meeting of a political or legislative group to select candidates, plan strategy, or make decisions regarding legislative matters. (page 355)

a national party political institution that nominates the party's presidential and vice presidential candidates, establishes party rules, and writes and ratifies the party's platform. (page 355)

a party document, written at a national convention, that contains party philosophy, principles, and positions on issues. (page 356)

money contributed directly to political parties and other organizations for political activities that is not regulated by federal campaign spending laws; in 2002 federal law prohibited unregulated donations to national party committees. (page 357)

nonprofit independent groups that receive and disburse funds to influence the nomination, election, or defeat of candidates. Named after Section 527 of the Internal Revenue Code, which defines and grants tax-exempt status to nonprofit advocacy groups. (page 357)

strong party organizations in late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century American cities. These machines were led by 'bosses' who controlled party nominations and patronage. (page 358)

the resources available to higher officials, usually opportunities to make partisan appointments to offices and to confer grants, licenses, or special favors to supporters. (page 358)

an individual voter's psychological ties to one party or another. (page 360)

partisans who contribute time, energy, and effort to support their party and its candidates. (page 361)

a distinctive pattern of voting behavior reflecting the differences in views between women and men. (page 362)

the process by which political parties select their candidates for election to public office. (page 366)

an individual who identifies a problem as a political issue and brings a policy proposal into the political agenda. (page 368)

the party that holds the majority of legislative seats in either the House or the Senate. (page 369)

the party that holds a minority of legislative seats in either the House or the Senate. (page 369)

congressional elections that do not coincide with a presidential election; also called off-year elections. (page 381)

elections held to select a party's candidate for the general election. (page 382)

a primary election in which voters can participate in the nomination of candidates, but only of the party in which they are enrolled for a period of time prior to primary day. (page 382)

a primary election in which the voter can wait until the day of the primary to choose which party to enroll in to select candidates for the general election. (page 382)

a regularly scheduled election involving most districts in the nation or state, in which voters select officeholders; in the United States, general elections for national office and most state and local offices are held on the first Tuesday following the first Monday in November in even-numbered years. (every four years for presidential elections). (page 383)

a 'second round' election in which voters choose between the top two candidates from the first round. (page 383)

a type of electoral system in which, to win a seat in the parliament or other representative body, a candidate must receive a majority of all the votes cast in the relevant district. (page 383)

a type of electoral system in which, to win a seat in the parliament or other representative body, a candidate need only receive the most votes in the election, not necessarily a majority of votes cast. (page 383)

a multiple-member district system that allows each political party representation in proportion to its percentage of the total vote. (page 383)

selecting candidates from the same political party for all offices on the ballot. (page 383)

the result of voters casting their ballot for president or governor and 'automatically' voting for the remainder of the party's ticket. (page 384)

the process of redrawing election districts and redistributing legislative representatives. This happens every ten years to reflect shifts in population or in response to legal challenges in existing districts. (page 385)

apportionment of voters in districts in such a way as to give unfair advantage to one racial or ethnic group or political party. (page 385)

a gerrymandered voting district that improves the chances of minority candidates by making selected minority groups the majority within the district. (page 385)

the presidential electors from each state who meet after the popular election to cast ballots for president and vice president. (page 386)

a normally closed political party business meeting of citizens or law makers to select candidates elect officers, plan strategy, or make decisions regarding legislative matters. (page 388)

a party document, written at a national convention, that contains party philosophy, principles, and positions on issues. (page 391)

political activists selected to vote at a party's national convention. (page 391)

a convention delegate position, in Democratic conventions, reserved for party officials. (page 392)

a proposed law or policy change that is placed on the ballot by citizens or interest groups for a popular vote. (page 392)

the practice of referring a proposed law passed by a legislature to the vote of the electorate for approval or rejection. (page 392)

a procedure to allow voters to remove state officials from office before their terms expire by circulating petitions to call a vote. (page 393)

an effort by political candidates and their supporters to win the backing of donors, political activists, and voters in their quest for political office. (page 394)

a candidate running for reelection to a position that he or she already holds. (page 394)

a 15, 30, or 60-second television campaign commercial that permits a candidate's message to be delivered to a target audience. (page 398)

an informal public meeting in which candidates meet with ordinary citizens. Allows candidates to deliver messages without the presence of journalists or commentators. (page 399)

voting based on the imagined future performance of a candidate or political party. (page 406)

voting based on the past performance of a candidate or political party. (page 406)

a private group that raises and distributes funds for use in election campaigns. (page 420)

nonprofit independent groups that receive and disburse funds to influence the nomination, election, or defeat of candidates. Named after Section 527 of the Internal Revenue Code, which defines and provides tax-exempt status for nonprofit advocacy groups. (page 421)

nonprofit groups that also engage in issue advocacy. Under Section 501c(4) of the federal tax code such a group may spend up to half its revenue for political purposes. (page 421)