PSYCH 3100 Personality Psychology – Chapter 9

A longitudinal study follows a group of people as they age. A cross-sectional study collects data at one time on people of different ages.

A study that collects data on the *same people* at *more than one time*. Ex: recording the neuroticism of the same group of people when they are 20 and 60 years old.

- *advantage*: is you are comparing the same people at 20 and at 60. - *disadvantage*: is it takes a very long time and is expensive and time-consuming. Changes found in a longitudinal study could also be due to time period (historical changes that affect people of all ages)

A study in which data is collected at *one time* that compares *different people* of different ages.

- *advantage*: doesn't take a long time - *disadvantage*: is the younger people are *different people* than the older ones, so the younger people might differ from the older people in ways other than age such as: ? they represent different generations ? different experiences during their lifetimes ? might vary in other ways, such as education level or computer use. - So if a cross-sectional study finds that older people are less neurotic, that could be due to age, but it could also be due to generation or some other difference

we rely on *longitudinal studies* when we describe age differences in personality

b. Longitudinal study

b. Cross-sectional study

d. Longitudinal studies are relatively simple to conduct.

Child temperament is considered more biologically based than adult personality, but many temperament traits overlap with the Big Five. Children tend to become more conscientious and less neurotic as they grow older, and adolescents become more open to experience. Self-esteem grows in childhood, decreases slightly during early adolescence, and increases from adolescence to young adulthood.

Genetically based behavioral tendencies seen in young children, even babies. Ex: For example, some babies are more restless, some are easier to calm, and some adapt to a schedule more quickly - These behaviors are relatively easy for an outsider or a parent to observe, which is essential when gauging the personality of someone who can't yet talk.

true

(1) extraversion/surgency (2) effortful control (similar to high conscientiousness) (3) negative affectivity (high neuroticism)

By late childhood to adolescence, at age 16 it is almost identical to adults.

Temperament: (1) Positive affects (2) Afiiliativness (3) Effortful control (4) Negative affect (5) Orienting sensitivity

Extraversion - Positive affects Agreeableness - Afiiliativness Conscientiousness - Effortful control Neuroticism - Negative affect Openness - Orienting sensitivity

childhood temperament can predict adult personality—but far from perfectly. - It is reasonably good at predicting. Ex: "undercontrolled" at age 3—similar to low conscientiousness or impulsivity—scored high on danger-seeking, aggression, and impulsivity as young adults

A famous study of 100 children in Northern California and followed them for several decades: - The Q-sort method is unusual because it is not a measure of any specific trait. Instead, it describes the full personality of a person. - The Q-sort works by having experts rate individuals on 100 personality items (from most to least) through direct observation - raters have to put the cards into a forced normal distribution. ( five cards at the low end, five at the high end, and 18 in the middle.) - the Q-sort uniquely suited for longitudinal studies, since researchers can measure new traits and concepts unrecognized when the first wave of the study was done.

Self-esteem is moderate during elementary school, dips during the early teen years, and then increases during high school and young adulthood

true, but girls' self-esteem doesn't increase as fast as boys' does between middle school and high school.

d. Genetically-based behavioral tendencies seen in young children

c. Generally, the primary temperament constructs align with each of the Big Five traits.

a. Self-esteem dips during the early teen years, and then increases during high school and young adulthood.

As people age from young adulthood to old age, they tend to become less neurotic and more conscientious. Self-esteem increases from young adulthood until about age 60 and then declines.

Most studies suggest they do: On average, people become *less neurotic* and more conscientious, agreeable, and assertive (facet of extraversion) as they age from young adulthood to middle adulthood with neuroticism continuing to decline into old age. Openness increases between ages 18 and 22 but declines in ages 60-70.

40-year-olds

changing the most during childhood and becomes the most stable when people are in their 40s and 50s

In the last year of college, people were higher in agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness and *lower in neuroticism*; extraversion was unchanged

Shifts in a population's average scores with age. Ex: Many people increase in assertiveness, a facet of extraversion, between their teen years and their 40s.

Comparing someone to the average person his or her age. Ex: Can a teen who is even moodier than most teens turn into a middle-aged adult who's calmer than most middle-aged adults?

Most research suggests she would likely still score above average in neuroticism, even if she wasn't necessarily still in the top 5%. Personality has fairly high rank-order consistency. - That means it's extremely unusual for someone to go from the top 5% to the bottom 5%, and that someone who scored above average in neuroticism as a teen will most likely still score above average as a 40-year-old. - Overall, people can and do change, but most of the time the change isn't radical.

true.

- Self-esteem increases slightly as people age from their 20s to their 60s - Narcissism declines with age: teens score the highest, followed by those in their 20s, and so on, with the oldest respondents usually reporting the least narcissism

Benefit: Narcissism feels good and works well for a young person—relationships can be fleeting, everything is fun, and the consequences of self-centeredness have yet to catch up with him. Cost: But as he gets older, the narcissistic individual is likely to pay the price. More than likely, his relationships will fall apart, leading to anxiety and depression later in life

c. less neurotic and more conscientious.

c. Agreeableness

b. Self-esteem increases slightly as people age from their 20s to their 60s and then decreases.

Social investment theory suggests that age differences in personality may be due to taking on adult roles, and studies show that people become more conscientious and less neurotic after they start working or establish a stable romantic relationship. Positive and negative life events are more often influenced by personality, rather than personality being influenced by them.

Given the strong genetic basis for personality, it's unlikely that someone's personality would change very dramatically even after a traumatic or life-altering event.

Radical personality change. - happens *very infrequently*, such as when a person with chronic alcoholism gets sober

The idea that personalities mature as people enter important adult social roles such as establishing a career and starting a family. - maturity is caused by settling down into adult responsibilities and relationships.

Growth in traits consistent with being more mature and grown-up, such as higher conscientiousness, higher agreeableness, and lower neuroticism. - In other words, young people's personalities mature as they invest in their lives and the greater society through stable relationships and steady work

those who started working increased in conscientiousness faster than those who went to college

positive; those successful in their careers increase more in self-confidence, dominance, and norm-adherence (similar to conscientiousness) and decrease more in neuroticism - Starting a career often contributes to the maturation of personality, including higher conscientiousness.

False; the changes are happening late because it is taking *longer* for people settle down into jobs, marriage, and parenthood.

A new life stage between adolescence and adulthood.

Yes; having a stable romantic partner seems to make people less neurotic, no matter what their age. - Those who had settled down into a *stable romantic relationship* increased in conscientiousness and decreased in neuroticism. - Those who stayed *single* did not change much. - Another 4 years later, those who *found a partner* during that time also decreased in neuroticism

Erik Erikson's life stages

Infancy (0 to 1½ years)

Early childhood (1½ to 3 years)

Preschool (3 to 5)

School age (5 to 12)

Adolescence (12 to 18)

Young adulthood (18 to 40)

Middle adulthood (40 to 65)

Older adulthood (65+)

Positive Erikson's stages and empirical research back this up.

*Neuroticism:* Those who had two or more children increased in neuroticism; which shows that parents worry more. *Sociability (in men):* Parenting reinforced existing tendencies; Those who were initially high in sociability increased in sociability, and those who were low decreased

Personality traits were more likely to predict life events than events were to predict personality traits. This is due to innate nature of your personality. - Not surprisingly, college students who had negative experiences *increased in neuroticism*. - Those who had good experiences *decreased in neuroticism* and increased in extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness

c. More conscientiousness, more agreeableness, and less neuroticism

a. emerging adulthood.

a. Intimacy vs. isolation

Younger siblings are higher in openness to experience and agreeableness, and older siblings in dominance and conscientiousness. However, the effects of birth order on personality are only about one-tenth the size of genetics. Only children show few differences from children with siblings.

The order in which siblings are born, an important concept in Alfred Adler's psychology. - whether you are the oldest, middle, or youngest in your family, or an only child

Birth order does affect personality, but not as much as most people would predict. Birth order explains, at most, 4% of differences in personality.

4%; Thus birth order effects are about one-tenth the size of genetic effects on personality.

When the same or a very similar study is conducted again, the results are similar.

younger

oldest; youngest

firstborns; lastborns

No differences other than parents are able to pay for more things (college) and they inherit more.

b. relatively small effect on personality.

c. conscientiousness and neuroticism.

d. laterborn child. (openness to experience)

Personality is an important predictor of health, relationships, and work performance.

- children higher in conscientiousness and agreeableness were more likely to graduate from college and to succeed at work. - Children high in the extraversion facet of assertiveness or dominance were more likely to have satisfying friendships and romantic relationships *Experiences also shaped personality*: - Children who did poorly in school or acted aggressively experienced more negative emotions (neuroticism) between the ages of 10 and 20

(1) Personality causes life outcomes (2) life outcomes cause personality (3) or a third variable (such as socioeconomic status [SES] or family background) causes both.

true

conscientiousness

Low neuroticism and high agreeableness

False; Two studies found that students who smiled more broadly (real) in their yearbook photograph were more likely—even three decades later—to have a happy marriage.

Smiling is correlated with personality traits related to positive emotions such as extraversion and agreeableness.

(1) IQ (2) But personality is not far behind (3) family SES What does this mean? So having a "good" personality is more important for being successful at work than coming from a well-off or educated family

6% ; So 94% of what determines long life is not conscientiousness. Dylan the difficult child can breathe a sigh of relief.

true

c. High in conscientiousness and agreeableness

c. IQ.

c. Personality plays a measurable role in longevity.

c. longitudinal study.

b. Agreeableness

b. 15

b. Girls' and boys' self-esteem declines a little in middle school, but girls' doesn't increase as fast in high school.

b. Neuroticism decreases and conscientiousness increases.

b. His self-esteem may decline a little.

c. decrease over time.

b. rank-order consistency. ******

c. social investment theory.

d. Personality maturation varies across cultures.

d. Neuroticism tends to decrease.

b. She shows no discernable difference in personality from children who have siblings.

d. There is no conclusive difference compared to their siblings.

b. Only children tend to inherit more money from their parents.

d. Personality is an important predictor of health, relationships, and work performance.