Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and crystallization of molten rock.
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Intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks are classified based on what criteria?
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How quickly the molten rock cools and crystallizes, and where this occurs with respect to Earth's surface
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What is required to generate an igneous rock with a fine-grained texture?
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A fine-grained texture is the product of rapid cooling and crystallization of lava
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A phaneritic texture is characteristic of a(n) __________ igneous rock that cooled __________.
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intrusive; below the surface
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What does it mean if an igneous rock has an aphanitic texture?
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The igneous rock exhibits mineral crystals too small to see with the naked eye.
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Ultramafic rocks contain __________ and are commonly found in
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olivine; mantle
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What is an accessory mineral?
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A mineral that makes up a relatively small portion of the total rock composition
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Which of the following best describes the difference between granite and rhyolite?
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Granite is phaneritic and rhyolite is aphanitic.
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What is the rock name of an intermediate rock with two distinct grain sizes?
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Andesite porphyry
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What do pumice and scoria have in common?
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They both exhibit a vesicular texture.
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What large, overall igneous feature makes up the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California?
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batholith
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What are the large crystals visible in this figure, and what do they indicate about the rock they formed in?
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phenocrysts; precipitated out as magma cooled
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What is a roof pendant?
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older rock capping the batholith. This rock would have been the roof of the magma chamber.
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How do sheet joints and exfoliation domes form in granite plutons?
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Confining pressure on the plutons is removed through erosion of surrounding rock. Plutons then expand.
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When will magma rise to Earth's surface?
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when the magma is less dense than adjacent rock
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In general, when will melted rock in the mantle rise?
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almost always
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How are felsic magmas formed?
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Heat from the mantle melts part of the lower crust.
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In general, why does Earth's crust sit on top of the mantle?
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Earth's crust is less dense than the mantle.
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How do mafic volcanic rocks get to Earth's surface?
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Pressure from overlying crust forces mantle magmas through cracks to Earth's surface. These magmas erupt out of volcanoes, cool, and solidify into rock.
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Which two processes commonly generate magma?
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decompression melting and wet melting (the addition of volatiles)
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Where does the water involved in melting at subduction zones come from?
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Water contained within minerals in the subducting plate is released during metamorphism.
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What is peridotite?
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the rock making up the mantle
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Why is water a necessary component of the melting process in subduction zones?
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The addition of water lowers the melting temperature of rock.
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Why is decompression melting common at mid-ocean ridges but not at subduction zones?
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Tectonic plates are moving apart at mid-ocean ridges, resulting in a lowering of pressure beneath the ridge. Tectonic plates are moving together at subduction zones, resulting in an increase of pressure under new mountains.
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Which of the following could cause rock to melt?
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(change in composition)
increase in pressure
(decrease in pressure)
(increase in temperature)
decrease in temperature
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Once a source rock partially melts, what does it produce?
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Felsic magma and mafic residue
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According to Bowen's Reaction Series, __________ is one of the first minerals to melt, but last to crystallize.
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quartz
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How is basaltic magma transformed into felsic magma?
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Basaltic magma partially melts the continental crust, which is more felsic in composition.
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What causes an elevated geothermal gradient in a divergent plate setting?
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Decompression melting of the mantle
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In a subduction zone, water driven from subducted oceanic crust causes
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the melting temperature of mantle rocks to decrease
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What lies underneath volcanic features at Earth's surface?
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magma chambers and volcanic conduits
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What is the difference between a dike and a sill?
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A dike intrudes across sedimentary layers, and a sill intrudes between sedimentary layers
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What is a volcanic conduit called after the conduit has solidified and been exposed by erosion?
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volcanic neck
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Why are volcanic rocks often exposed at Earth's surface as hills, ridges, and mountains surrounded by areas of lower elevation?
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Volcanic rocks are often more resistant to erosion than surrounding rock.
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What is a magma chamber called after the conduit has solidified and been exposed by erosion?
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batholith
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Which of the following is true based off your observation of intrusive igneous rocks on Earth's surface
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Intrusive igneous bodies are formed by magma intruding and crystallizing in country rock below Earth's surface. Therefore, if we observe these features at the surface today, they must be exposed by uplift and erosion.
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Photo A and B
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Photo A shows a sill, which is a tabular igneous feature formed by magma intruding parallel to pre-existing sedimentary layers. Since sedimentary rocks are commonly horizontal, sills tend to show a nearly horizontal orientation. A dike is shown in Photo B, characterized by its nearly vertical orientation. This feature is produced when magma is injected vertically through country rock, hence cutting across sedimentary bedding.
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What is the best interpretation for how the porphyritic texture of these rocks formed?
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The magma cooled slowly at first, forming large crystals, and then quickly, forming small crystals from the remaining magma.
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__________ naturally concentrate(s) the less common elements of Earth's crust.
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Hydrothermal solutions
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When minerals precipitate in a fracture, they are referred to as
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vein deposits
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Pegmatites are igneous rocks with __________ crystals, formed from a __________.
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large; wet magma
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How do black smokers get their name?
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Dissolved minerals are ejected from chimneys and rapidly precipitate out of solution, creating a dark color.
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Which of the following best describes the water transport path before exiting through a black smoker at the seafloor?
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Water circulates through the ocean crust, causing it to heat up and become saturated with dissolved minerals.
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What is fractional crystallization?
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crystallization of part of a magma, leaving behind melted rock with a different composition from the original magma
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Why does magma composition change during fractional crystallization?
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Different elements in the magma form crystals at different rates, leaving behind more of the unused elements.
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What type of magma would you expect to see after crystallization of minerals containing significant amounts of iron?
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a magma depleted in iron
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Which of the following statements best represents the relationship between magma and crystals formed from that magma?
answer
The crystals are denser than the magma
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