Ch 14

FALSE, "Being good at several things will be more advantageous in the long run than being excellent at one narrow specialty," says career coach Richard Knowdell. "A complex world will not only demand specialized knowledge but also general and flexible skills."

FALSE Leadership is the ability to influence employees to voluntarily pursue organizational goals.

TRUE John Kotter suggests that management is about coping with complexity, and leadership is about coping with change.

FALSE According to Kotter, companies manage complexity in several ways, including determining what needs to be done (planning and budgeting) and creating arrangements of people to accomplish an agenda (organizing and staffing). These are managerial, not leadership, functions.

TRUE Management is necessary because complex organizations, especially the large ones that so much dominate the economic landscape, tend to become chaotic unless there is good management.

FALSE Instead of organizing and staffing (management functions), leaders are concerned with aligning people, Kotter says. That is, they communicate the new direction to people in the company who can understand the vision and build coalitions that will realize it.

TRUE Instead of controlling and problem solving, leaders try to achieve their vision by motivating and inspiring. That is, they appeal to "basic but often untapped human needs, values, and emotions," says Kotter, to keep people moving in the right direction, despite obstacles to change.

TRUE Managers have legitimate power (as we'll describe) that derives from the formal authority of the positions to which they have been appointed. This power allows managers to hire and fire, reward and punish.

TRUE Authority is the right to perform or command; it comes with the job. In contrast, power is the extent to which a person is able to influence others so they respond to orders.

FALSE People who pursue personalized power—power directed at helping oneself—as a way of enhancing their own selfish ends may give the word "power" a bad name.

FALSE Here, Ben has expert power, which is power resulting from one's specialized information or expertise.

FALSE A charismatic personality is likely to yield referent power, which is power deriving from one's personal attraction.

TRUE Coercive power, which all managers have, results from managers' authority to punish their subordinates.

TRUE Referent power is power deriving from one's personal attraction. Referent power may be associated with managers, but it is more likely to be characteristic of leaders.

FALSE On a pair of studies, employees were asked how they got someone at work to do what they wanted. The two most used tactics were rational persuasion and inspirational appeals.

FALSE The generic influence tactic called exchange tactics is reminding someone of past favors or offering to trade favors. Example: "Since I backed you at last month's meeting, maybe you could help me this time around."

TRUE Inspirational appeals, which consist of trying to build enthusiasm or confidence by appealing to others' emotions, ideals, or values, are one of the "soft" tactics that are considered friendlier.

FALSE Research shows that of the three possible responses to an influence tactic—enthusiastic commitment, grudging compliance, and outright resistance—commitment is most apt to result when the tactics used are consultation, strong rational persuasion, and inspirational appeals, which are all soft tactics.

TRUE Physical fitness is a specific characteristic of the general biophysical trait that is a key positive leadership trait according to Table 14.2.

TRUE During the 1980s, James Kouzes and Barry Posner surveyed more than 7,500 managers throughout the United States as to what personal traits they looked for and admired in their superiors. The respondents suggested that a credible leader should have five traits. He or she should be (1) honest, (2) competent, (3) forward-looking, (4) inspiring, and (5) intelligent. The first trait, honesty, was considered particularly important, being selected by 87% of the respondents, suggesting that people want their leaders to be ethical.

FALSE A study by a New York research firm found that 55% of women and 57% of men aspire to be CEO, challenging the notion that more women aren't at the top because they don't want to be there.

TRUE According to Table 14.3, five studies show that female executives score higher than male executives on the ability to motivate others.

FALSE According to studies (see Table 14.3), women were found to be better at producing quality work, recognizing trends, and generating new ideas and acting on them.

TRUE Men believed that women are not in senior leadership positions because (1) they lack significant general management experience and (2) women have not been in the executive talent pool long enough to get selected. Women, by contrast, believed that (1) male stereotyping and (2) exclusion from important informal networks are the biggest barriers to promotability.

FALSE According to Table 14.4, the universally negative leader attributes are loner, asocial, noncooperative, irritable, nonexplicit, egocentric, ruthless, and dictatorial.

TRUE The University of Michigan leadership model studied the effects of leader behavior on job performance, interviewing numerous managers and subordinates. The investigators identified two forms of leadership styles: job-centered and employee-centered.

FALSE According to the University of Michigan leadership model, in employee-centered behavior managers paid more attention to employee satisfaction and making work groups cohesive. By concentrating on subordinates' needs they hoped to build effective work groups with high-performance goals.

TRUE According to the Ohio State leadership model, consideration is leadership behavior that expresses concern for employees by establishing a warm, friendly, supportive climate. This behavior, which resembles Likert's "employee-centered behavior," is sensitive to subordinates' ideas and feelings and establishes mutual trust.

FALSE Peter Drucker recommends that you think and say "we" rather than "I" and consider the needs and opportunities of the organization before thinking of your own opportunities and needs.

TRUE Three contingency approaches are: (1) the contingency leadership model by Fiedler, (2) the path-goal leadership model by House, and (3) the situational leadership model by Hersey and Blanchard.

FALSE To find out if you are task-oriented or relationship-oriented, you fill out a questionnaire (known as the least preferred co-worker, or LPC, scale). The three dimensions of situational control are leader-member relations, task structure, and position power.

TRUE Leader-member relations, the most important component of situational control, reflects the extent to which a leader has or doesn't have the support, loyalty, and trust of the work group.

FALSE To determine a person's leadership orientation, the contingency model has a questionnaire known as the least preferred co-worker (LPC) scale.

TRUE Neither leadership style is effective all the time, Fiedler's research concludes, although each is right in certain situations. The task-oriented style works best in either high-control or low-control situations. The relationship-oriented style works best in situations of moderate control (see Figure 14.1).

TRUE The path-goal leadership model holds that the effective leader makes available to followers desirable rewards in the workplace and increases their motivation by clarifying the paths, or behavior, that will help them achieve those goals.

FALSE As Figure 14.2 indicates, two contingency factors, or variables—employee characteristics and environmental factors—cause some leadership behaviors to be more effective than others according to path-goal theory.

TRUE Effective leaders possess and use more than one style of leadership. Thus, you are encouraged to study the eight styles offered in path-goal theory so that you can try new leader behaviors when a situation calls for them.

TRUE In situational leadership theory, leadership behavior reflects how leaders should adjust their leadership style according to the readiness of the followers. The model suggests that managers should be flexible in choosing a leadership behavior style and be sensitive to the readiness level of their employees

FALSE In situational leadership theory, readiness is defined as the extent to which a follower possesses the ability and willingness to complete a task.

FALSE According to Figure 14.3, the highest levels of relationship behaviors are best for followers with moderate levels of readiness (R2 and R3). The highest levels of task behaviors are best for followers with low readiness (R1).

TRUE The situational leadership model is widely used as a training tool, but it is not strongly supported by scientific research. For instance, a study of 459 salespeople found that leadership effectiveness was not attributable to the predicted interaction between follower readiness and leadership style. Managers should exercise discretion when using prescriptions from this model.

FALSE Transactional leadership is focusing on clarifying employees' roles and task requirements and providing rewards and punishments contingent on performance

FALSE Transactional leaders are best in stable situations. What's needed in rapidly changing situations, as is often the case in many organizations today, is a transformational leader.

TRUE Adaptive, flexible organizational cultures are more likely than are rigid, bureaucratic cultures to foster transformational leadership

TRUE Transformational leaders have four key kinds of behavior that affect followers, one of which is individualized consideration. Transformational leaders don't just express concern for subordinates' well-being. They actively encourage them to grow and to excel by giving them challenging work, more responsibility, empowerment, and one-on-one mentoring.

TRUE Transformational leaders have charisma, a form of interpersonal attraction that inspires acceptance and support.

FALSE A transformational leader inspires motivation by offering an agenda, a grand design, an ultimate goal—in short, a vision. Apple Computer's Steve Jobs had a vision of developing an "insanely great" desktop computer.

FALSE Not just top managers but employees at any level can be trained to be more transactional and transformational.

TRUE Without honesty and trust, even transformational leaders lose credibility—not only with employees but also with investors, customers, and the public.

FALSE Unlike other models, which presuppose stable relationships between leaders and followers, the LMX model assumes each manager-subordinate relationship is unique (what behavioral scientists call a "vertical dyad").

FALSE In the in-group exchange, the relationship between leader and follower becomes a partnership characterized by mutual trust, respect and liking, and a sense of common fates.

TRUE Shared leadership is a simultaneous, ongoing, mutual influence process in which people share responsibility for leading.

FALSE Shared leadership is a simultaneous, ongoing, mutual influence process in which people share responsibility for leading.

TRUE The ability to foresee future outcomes is one of ten characteristics of a servant leader (see Table 14.8).

FALSE The use of persuasion rather than positional authority to influence others is one of ten characteristics of a servant leader (see Table 14.8).

TRUE E-leadership can involve one-to-one, one-to-many, within-group, and between-group and collective interactions via information technology.

TRUE Harvard Business School professor D. Quinn Mills, author of E-Leadership, suggests that individual companies will be replaced by much broader global networks that a single CEO will not be able to manage. Thus, while 20th-century management emphasized competition, he says, future organizations will run on knowledge sharing and open exchange.

FALSE Among the tips on e-leadership offered by Dan McCarthy is to use technology but don't get too caught up in it. Even with web conferences, videoconferences, and blogs, the best technology for virtual teamwork may still be the telephone.

c One tip is to keep learning. "You can take a one- or two-day course in a new subject," says Knowdell, "just to get an idea of whether you want to use those specific skills and to see if you would be good at it. Then, if there is a match, you could seek out an extended course."

d Leadership is the ability to influence employees to voluntarily pursue organizational goals.

b John Kotter suggests that management is about coping with complexity and leadership is about coping with change

e Kotter suggests that one is not better than the other, that in fact they are complementary systems of action.

a According to Kotter, companies manage complexity by planning and budgeting, organizing and staffing, and controlling and problem solving.

c Leadership copes with change in three ways: setting a direction, aligning people, and motivating and inspiring.

d "The primary task of leadership is to communicate the vision and the values of an organization," says Frederick Smith, chairman and CEO of FedEx.

b Legitimate power, which all managers have, is power that results from managers' formal positions within the organization

e Reward power, which all managers have, is power that results from managers' authority to reward their subordinates. Rewards can range from praise to pay raises, from recognition to promotions.

c Expert power is power resulting from one's specialized information or expertise.

a Coercive power, which all managers have, results from managers' authority to punish their subordinates. Punishment can range from verbal or written reprimands to demotions to terminations.

b Referent power is power deriving from one's personal attraction. This kind of power characterizes strong, visionary leaders who are able to persuade their followers by dint of their personality, attitudes, or background.

b Referent power is power deriving from one's personal attraction. This kind of power characterizes strong, visionary leaders who are able to persuade their followers by dint of their personality, attitudes, or background.

d There are nine tactics for trying to influence others. The most used is rational persuasion, which is trying to convince someone by using reason, logic, or facts.

a There are nine tactics for trying to influence others, the least used of which are legitimating, pressure tactics, and coalition tactics.

b Research shows that of the three possible responses to an influence tactic—enthusiastic commitment, grudging compliance and outright resistance—commitment is most apt to result when the tactics used are consultation, strong rational persuasion, and inspirational appeals.

d Ingratiating tactics include acting humble or friendly or making someone feel good or feel important before making a request.

e Consultation means trying to get others to participate in a decision or change. Example: "Wonder if I could get your thoughts about this matter."

c Pressure tactics are the use of demands, threats, or intimidation to gain compliance. Example: "If this doesn't happen, you'd better think about cleaning out your desk."

a Personal appeals occur when on refers to friendship and loyalty when making a request. Example: "We've known each other a long time, and I'm sure I can count on you."

b Trait approaches to leadership attempt to identify distinctive characteristics that account for the effectiveness of leaders.

b Organizations may apply trait theory by using personality & trait assessments and by using management development programs.

a James Kouzes and Barry Posner surveyed more than 7,500 managers throughout the United States as to what personal traits they looked for and admired in their superiors. The respondents suggested that a credible leader should have five traits. He or she should be (1) honest, (2) competent, (3) forward-looking, (4) inspiring, and (5) intelligent.

c According to Table 14.3, the summary indicates that men score better than women on strategic planning and analyzing issues in several of the studies. On the other traits, women uniformly scored higher.

d Project GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness), surveyed 17,000 middle managers working for 951 organizations across 62 countries, and the researchers determined that certain attributes of leadership were universally liked or disliked. Visionary and inspirational charismatic leaders who are good team builders generally do the best.

a Behavioral leadership approaches attempt to determine the distinctive styles used by effective leaders.

b What all models of leadership behavior have in common is the consideration of task orientation versus people orientation. Two classic studies came out of the universities of Michigan and Ohio State.

a Researchers at the University of Michigan identified two forms of leadership styles: job-centered and employee-centered.

c In job-centered behavior, managers pay more attention to the job and work procedures. Their principal concerns are with achieving production efficiency, keeping costs down, and meeting schedules.

d From surveys of leadership behavior for the Ohio State Leadership Model, two major dimensions of leader behavior were identified: initiating structure and consideration.

e Consideration is leadership behavior that expresses concern for employees by establishing a warm, friendly, supportive climate. This behavior, which resembles Likert's "employee-centered behavior," is sensitive to subordinates' ideas and feelings and establishes mutual trust.

One management expert concluded that effective leaders (1) tend to have supportive or employee-centered relationships with employees, (2) use group rather than individual methods of supervision, and (3) set high performance goals.

e Proponents of the contingency approach to leadership believe that effective leadership behavior depends on the situation at hand.

b Three contingency approaches to leadership are: (1) the contingency leadership model by Fiedler, (2) the path-goal leadership model by House, and (3) the situational leadership model by Hersey and Blanchard.

c The contingency leadership model determines if a leader's style is (1) task-oriented or (2) relationship-oriented and if that style is effective for the situation at hand.

d Situational control is how much control and influence a leader has in the immediate work environment.

a The contingency leadership model determines if a leader's style is (1) task-oriented or (2) relationship-oriented and if that style is effective for the situation at hand.

b To find out if you are task-oriented or relationship-oriented, you or your employees would fill out a questionnaire (known as the least preferred co-worker, or LPC, scale), in which you think of the co-worker you least enjoyed working with and rate him or her according to an eight-point scale.

a The leader-member relations dimension of the contingency model, the most important component of situational control, reflects the extent to which a leader has or doesn't have the support, loyalty, and trust of the work group.

e Task structure is the dimension referring to the extent to which tasks are routine, unambiguous, and easily understood. The more structured the jobs, the more influence a leader has.

e Position power is the dimension of the contingency model that refers to how much power a leader has to make work assignments and reward and punish. More power equals more control and influence.

c In the contingency model, the relationship-oriented style works best in situations of moderate control.

a Leader-member relations are likely poor because he can't always answer questions. The task is relatively unstructured because it is new and complex. Tim has little position power. These lead to a low-control situation.

b The situational control is very low, and Fiedler's model suggests a task-oriented style will be more effective.

d There are three dimensions of situational control: leader-member relations, task structure, and position power.

b Viviana's leader-member relations are high because she and her people get along well. The task structure is high because the job is routine and unambiguous. The position power is high because she holds a lot of legitimate power.

c The situational control is high, which, according to Fiedler, suggests that a task-oriented style would be more effective.

e According to Fiedler's model, the relationship-oriented style works best in situations of moderate control.

a What do you do if your leadership orientation does not match the situation? Then, says Fiedler, it's better to try to move leaders into suitable situations rather than try to alter their personalities to fit the situations.

e The path-goal leadership model holds that the effective leader makes available to followers desirable rewards in the workplace and increases their motivation by clarifying the paths, or behavior, that will help them achieve those goals and providing them with support.

b According to House's revised path-goal theory, a leader's style should vary depending on employee characteristics and environmental factors.

a According to House's revised path-goal theory, those with a value-based leadership style establish a vision, display passion for it, and support its accomplishment. They communicate high performance expectations and confidence in others' abilities to meet their goals. They give frequent positive feedback and demonstrate self-confidence.

c According to House's revised path-goal theory, those with a supportive leadership style treat others as equals, show concern for well-being and needs, and are friendly and approachable.

d According to revised path-goal theory, those with an achievement-oriented leadership style set challenging goals, emphasize excellence, and demonstrate confidence in employee abilities.

c Besides expanding the number of leader behavior styles, House's revision of his theory also puts more emphasis on the need for leaders to foster intrinsic motivation through empowerment.

b In situational leadership theory, leadership behavior reflects how leaders should adjust their leadership style according to the readiness of the followers.

d Readiness is defined as the extent to which a follower possesses the ability and willingness to complete a task. Subordinates with high readiness (with high ability, skills, and willingness to work) require a different leadership style than do those with low readiness (low ability, training, and willingness).

d The highest level of follower readiness, R4, corresponds with the delegating leadership style (see Figure 14.3).

e The leadership style of telling works best for followers with a low level of readiness, followed by selling, participating and delegating at progressively higher levels of readiness.

c Participating involves encouraging followers to solve problems on their own. Because it shares decision making, this leadership style encourages subordinates in performing tasks. Thus, it is most appropriate for followers whose readiness is in the moderate to high range.

d Rosie is R1, and would be best managed with telling; Nikko is R2, and would be best managed with selling (see Figure 14.3).

c Full-range leadership suggests that leadership behavior varies along a full range of leadership styles, from take-no-responsibility ( laissez-faire ) "leadership" at one extreme, through transactional leadership, to transformational leadership at the other extreme.

e Transactional leadership encompasses the fundamental managerial activities of setting goals and monitoring progress toward their achievement, and focuses on clarifying employees' roles and task requirements and providing rewards and punishments contingent on performance.

d Whereas transactional leaders try to get people to do ordinary things, transformational leaders encourage their people to do exceptional things—significantly higher levels of intrinsic motivation, trust, commitment, and loyalty—that can produce significant organizational change and results.

e Charismatic leadership—which was assumed to be an individual inspirational and motivational characteristic of particular leaders, much like other trait-theory characteristics—was viewed as a category of its own, but now it is considered part of transformational leadership.

b A transformational leader inspires motivation by offering an agenda, a grand design, an ultimate goal—in short, a vision.

c The research shows that transformational leadership yields several positive results. For example, it is positively associated with (1) measures of organizational effectiveness; (2) measures of leadership effectiveness and employee job satisfaction; (3) more employee identification with their leaders and with their immediate workgroups; and (4) higher levels of intrinsic motivation, group cohesion, work engagement, and setting of goals consistent with those of the leader.

d The leader-member exchange (LMX) model of leadership emphasizes that leaders have different sorts of relationships with different subordinates.

c In the in-group exchange, the relationship between leader and follower becomes a partnership characterized by mutual trust, respect and liking, and a sense of common fates.

b Shared leadership is a simultaneous, ongoing, mutual influence process in which people share responsibility for leading. This kind of leadership is most likely to be needed when people work in teams, are involved in complex projects, or are doing knowledge work—work requiring voluntary contributions of intellectual capital by skilled professionals.

d Shared leadership is a simultaneous, ongoing, mutual influence process in which people share responsibility for leading. Some famous technical companies are headed by leaders who share power, such as MySpace.com founders, Tom Anderson and Chris DeWolfe.

d Servant leaders focus on providing increased service to others—meeting the goals of both followers and the organization—rather than to themselves.

b Servant leaders focus on providing increased service to others. Characteristics include belief they are stewards of their employees and resources and commitment to the growth of people.

b E-leaders, says one writer, "have a global mind-set that recognizes that the Internet is opening new markets and recharging existing ones. They don't bother fighting mere battles with competitors because they're too busy creating businesses that will surround and destroy them."

d Tips on e-leadership offered by Dan McCarthy, Manager of Leadership and Management Development for a Fortune 500 company, include using global English.

Management is the system of action that deals with complexity, and leadership is the system of action for dealing with change. Management copes with complexity through planning, budgeting, organizing, staff, controlling and problem solving. Leadership copes with change through setting direction, aligning people, and motivating and inspiring. Neither is more important than the other, but in fact they are complementary systems of action.

The five sources of power are: Legitimate: power from a person's formal position within an organization Reward: power from the ability to reward another person Coercive: power from the ability to punish another person Expert: power from one's specialized information or expertise Referent: power from one's personal attraction The student should then give an example of each type of power.

The nine tactics described, in descending order of frequency of use, are: Rational persuasion (soft)-"You know, all the cutting-edge companies use this approach." Inspirational appeals (soft)-"If we do this as a goodwill gesture, customers will love us." Consultation (soft)-"Wonder if I could get your thoughts about this matter." Ingratiation (soft)-"I hate to impose on your time, knowing how busy you are, but you're the only one who can help me." Personal appeals (soft)-"We've known each other a long time, and I'm sure I can count on you." Exchange tactics (hard)-"Since I backed you at last month's meeting, maybe you could help me this time around." Coalition tactics (hard)-"Everyone in the department thinks this is a great idea." Pressure tactics (hard)-"If this doesn't happen, you'd better think about cleaning out your desk." Legitimating tactics (hard)-"This has been green-lighted at the highest levels."

A trait theory of leadership is one that attempts to identify some distinctive characteristics that account for the effectiveness of leaders. Kouzes & Posner's studies found that the five traits of leaders are: honest, competent, forward-looking, inspiring, and intelligent. The student should then describe a leader in terms of the theory.

A behavioral theory of leadership is one that attempts to determine distinctive styles used by effective leaders. The two classic studies discussed in the text are: The University of Michigan Model: This investigation identified two forms of leadership styles: job-centered and employee-centered. In job-centered behavior, managers paid more attention to the job and work procedures. In employee-centered behavior, managers paid more attention to employee satisfaction and making work groups cohesive. Ohio State Leadership Model: The two major dimensions of leader behavior are initiating structure—the leadership behavior that organizes and defines what group members should be doing; and the consideration dimension—leadership behavior that expresses concern for employees by establishing a warm, friendly, supportive climate. The student should then describe a leader in terms of the chosen theory.

The contingency leadership model determines if a leader's style is (1) task-oriented or (2) relationship-oriented and if that style is effective for the situation at hand. Situational control is based on task structure (the extent to which tasks are routine, unambiguous, and easily understood), leader-member relations (the extent to which a leader has the support, loyalty, and trust of the work group), and position power (how much power a leader has to make work assignments and reward and punish). It determines what leadership style (task-oriented or relationship-oriented) works best. High- and low-control situations favor task-oriented leadership, while moderate-control situations call for relationship-oriented leadership. In low-control situations, leader decisions can't produce predictable results because he or she can't really influence outcomes.

Transactional leadership focuses on clarifying employees' roles and task requirements and providing rewards and punishments contingent on performance. This is most like the earlier definition of "manager." A transformational leader is a visionary who challenges people to perform above and beyond what's expected of them; to pursue organizational goals over self-interest. These leaders transform others. This is most like the earlier definition of "leader."

A transformational leader has vision, idealized influence, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation. A charismatic leader transforms followers by sharing a vision, inspiring trust in their followers, actively encourage followers to grow and to excel by giving them challenging work, and intellectually stimulating the followers to see personal challenges to overcome. The student should then describe a transformational leader in terms of the attributes he or she explained.

A servant leader is one who focuses on providing increased service to others rather than to him or herself. The characteristics include: focus on listening, ability to empathize, focus on healing suffering, self-awareness of strengths and weaknesses, use of persuasion over position power, broad-based conceptual thinking, ability to foresee future outcomes, belief that they are stewards (caretakers) of employees and resources, commitment to the growth of people, and drive to build community within and outside the organization.