Endocrine System Homework

cortisol (steroid-based). Cortisol is one of the lipid-soluble steroid hormones. Thyroid hormones are also lipid soluble.

activation of mRNA, which increases protein synthesis in the cell. lipid-soluble hormones diffuse into the nucleus or they diffuse into the cytoplasm and then move into the nucleus, where they affect transcription and translation.

acts as a transcription factor and binds to DNA, activating a gene. then mRNA is synthesized.

Thyroid hormone (lipid soluble). thyroid hormones are lipid soluble and their receptors are bound to the response elements of the DNA.

chaperone proteins (chaperonins). Each receptor has two binding sites. The chaperone protein blocks the DNA binding site until a hormone binds at the hormone binding site.

water-soluble hormones, such as insulin and epinephrine. Peptides and catecholamines are water-soluble hormones that cannot diffuse through the plasma membrane.

Phosphoidesterase. Phosphodiesterase is an intracellular enzyme that degrades cAMP.

Tyrosine Kinase receptors. Insulin binds to tyrosine kinase receptors and works without a second messenger.

activation of G protein, binding of GTP, activation of adenylate cyclase, conversion of ATP to cAMP

IP3. Inositol trisphosphate releases calcium from intracellular storage sites.

beta receptors. These receptors are coupled to adenylate cyclase by Gs receptors that increase cAMP.

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH

control secretion of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH

GH (growth hormone

oxytocin OXY

hypothalamus

Negative feedback loop

epinephrine

Heat palpitations

Cushing's disease

ADH- vasopressin

Type 1

Type 2

cortisol, cortisone, corticosterone

Pancreas

Taking in glucose and converting it to glycogen.

liver

Liver cells, as well as most other cells of the body

C cells (parafollicular cells) in the thyroid gland. The C cells produce calcitonin, a peptide hormone that does not have a known physiological role in humans

epinephrine from the adrenal medulla. Epinephrine and norepinephrine are amine hormones (catecholamines) secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to an increase in the sympathetic nervous system.

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). ANP is synthesized in the atrium and increases excretion of sodium and water from the kidneys.

melatonin. Melatonin, which is released from the pineal gland, increases during darkness, making you drowsy.

insulin. Insulin promotes glucose uptake into cells and promotes glycogen synthesis in liver and muscle, thus decreasing plasma glucose.

cortisol. Cortisol is produced in the zona fasciculata of the adrenal gland and helps the body deal with stress by increasing plasma glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids.

hormonal stimuli

TH and Calcitonin

Anterior Pituitary. The anterior pituitary is a master gland, producing many hormones such as growth hormone, prolactin, and several other hormones that stimulate other glands in the body.

Negative feedback, endocrine cell, hormone, blood vessel

The primary function of hormones is to alter cell activity by altering plasma membrane permeability or membrane potential, stimulating synthesis of enzymes or regulating molecules, activating or deactivating enzymes, inducing secretory activity, or stimulating mitosis.

cAMP

Synergism. Synergism of hormones occurs in situations where one or more hormones produce the same effect at the target cell and their combined effects are amplified.

Permissiveness

Humoral stimuli. Some endocrine glands secrete their hormones in direct response to changing blood levels of certain critical ions and nutrients. These stimuli are called humoral stimuli to distinguish them from hormonal stimuli, which are also bloodborne chemicals.

The hypothalamus.

cAMP in the cytoplasm. Many cAMP can be generated as a second messenger to amplify the signal in response to hormone binding.

plasma membrane receptors. Water-soluble hormones bind to specific receptors in the plasma membrane, whereas steroid hormones bind to cytoplasmic receptors.

Hormones are transported through the blood stream to target cells.

Phosphorylate proteins. Phosphorylation can activate different proteins causing the response of the cell to water-soluble hormone.

Phosphodiesterase degrades cyclic AMP into AMP.

phosphodiesterase. The increase in cAMP levels is usually short-lived because the enzyme phosphodiesterase is constantly present in the cytoplasm of the target cells.

hyposecretion of dopamine. Dopamine functions as a prolactin-release-inhibiting hormone (PIH).

hormonal stimuli. The anterior pituitary requires hormonal stimuli from the hypothalamus.

Tropins, or tropic hormones.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Prolactin (PL) stimulates the mammary glands of the breasts to produce milk.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) prevents wide swings in water balance, helping the body avoid dehydration and water overload.

Growth hormone (GH)

Thyroid hormone is the body's major metabolic hormone and affects virtually every cell in the body.

failure of these: Parathyroid hormone (parathormone) is secreted in response to hypocalcemia. It functions to stimulate osteoclast activity, enhances the reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys, and increases absorption of calcium by the intestinal mucosal cells.

parathyroid hormone. Parathyroid hormone raises blood calcium ion levels.

humoral stimuli

parathyroid cells or chief cells

epinephrine. epinephrine is part of the immediate or rapid response to stress. Epinephrine is released from the adrenal medulla as a result of the increase in the sympathetic nervous system. In fact, the chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla act like modified postganglionic neurons.

decreased insulin secretion. Insulin decreases plasma glucose and during stress we need an increase in plasma glucose as well as other body fuels. Therefore, insulin secretion would be decreased, in turn increasing plasma glucose.

heart palpitations. Due to the increase in epinephrine, heart rate would be increased and you would feel like your heart was pounding or racing.

Cushing's disease. A patient with Cushing's would have hypertension, increased blood glucose, and an unusual fat distribution on the face, known as a "moon face." These symptoms are due to increased levels of cortisol and can also be seen in patients after long periods of steroid treatment.

ADH (vasopressin). ADH increases water reabsorption in the distal tubule and collecting duct of the nephron and its secondary function is to act as a vasoconstrictor.

glucocorticoids. Essential to life, the glucocorticoids increase blood glucose levels and help us to resist stressors.

Cushing's syndrome

The pancreas responds to high blood glucose levels by releasing insulin.

Taking in glucose and converting it to glycogen.

Liver cells.

Liver cells, as well as most other cells of the body.

increased secretion of ADH (anti-diuretic hormone). Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder resulting from a lack of insulin in the body. Insulin functions to lower blood glucose levels by enhancing the transport of glucose from the systemic circulation into cells. ADH is secreted in response to high blood osmolarity (too high solutes or too little water) in the blood. This hormone functions to increase the resorption of water by the kidneys, which dilutes the blood.

Insulin, produced by the pancreatic beta cells, lowers blood glucose levels by enhancing membrane transport of glucose into body cells, inhibiting the breakdown of glycogen to glucose and inhibiting the conversion of amino acids and fats to glucose.

Insulin

Insulin

synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources.

neurohormones from the ventral hypothalamic neurons, known as releasing (RH) and inhibiting (IH) hormones, control the release of anterior pituitary hormones such as adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and TSH.

Growth Hormone. GH stimulates IGFs from the liver. IGFs are required for the growth effect of GH on bone and skin.

Oxytocin. Suckling of the infant (or stretching of the uterus) increases release of oxytocin, which causes the milk let-down effect (or increased uterine contractions).

Hypothalamus. ADH is synthesized mainly in the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus. It is stored in the posterior pituitary in axon terminals.

Negative feedback. negative feedback controls the levels of circulating thyroid hormone. If levels are high, negative feedback will decrease thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) (and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) to some degree), thus decreasing the thyroid hormones.

It is by this portal system that releasing and inhibiting hormones secreted by neurons in the ventral hypothalamus circulate to the adenohypophysis, where they regulate secretion of its hormones.

Thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormones control the consumption of oxygen by all body tissues by way of an increase in glucose metabolism.

Oxytocin.

ectopic ADH secretion by pulmonary cancer, after general anesthesia , after neurosurgery

Pituitary dwarfism

Hypoparathyroidism

Addison's disease

calcitonin

Calcitriol parathyroid hormone promotes the formation of calcitriol.

Calcitriol. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) activates Vitamin D into calcitriol in the kidney. Calcitriol then increases absorption of calcium in the intestine.

Thyroxine. A deficiency of thyroxin during fetal development would lead to a congenital condition known as cretinism, which includes mental retardation, short disproportional body size, and a thick tongue and neck.

The brain.

Cells other than those that secrete it Somatostatin secreted by the pancreas acts locally on cells other than those that secrete it and is therefore referred to as a paracrine hormone.

release of glucagon by the pancreatic islets

an increase in the parathyroid hormone Osteitis fibrosa cystica is caused by a severe increase in the parathyroid hormone.

decreased secretion of renin ?? Aldosteronism is due to oversecretion of aldosterone. The kidneys release renin, which is converted into angiotensin II which stimulates aldosterone release.

Paget's disease

blood pressure. Cushing's syndrome results from excessive exposure to the hormone cortisol. Cortisol increases blood pressure by increasing the sensitivity of the blood vessels to epinephrine and norepinephrine. Aldosteronism occurs due to oversecretion of aldosterone. One function of aldosterone is to indirectly stimulate the reabsorbtion of water from the kidney tubule cells into the systemic circulation. This process increases blood volume and thus blood pressure.