Ch. 3&4 - Human Growth And Dev.

25 July 2022
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Weight
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*-The avg. North American baby weights 7 1/2 lbs - 95% of full-term newborns weight between 5 1/2 & 10 lbs -In the first several days of life, most newborns lose 5-7% of their body weight before they adjust to neonatal feeding - Infants gain 5-6 ounces per week during 1st month - They have doubled their birthweight by the age of 4 months - They have nearly tripled their birthweight by their 1st birthday - During the 2nd yr of life they gain a quarter to half a pound per month. - At 2 years of age they have reached about one-fifth of their adult weight.
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Cephalocaudal Pattern
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The sequence in which the greatest growth always occurs at the top of the head with physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually working its way down the body (Head, eyes, and brain grow faster than lower parts)
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Neuron
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A nerve cell that handles information processing at the cellular level.
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Brain's Development
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- At birth, the newborn's brain is about 25% of its adult weight and, by the second birthday, it is about 75% of its adult weight. - Newborns have all of the neurons they will ever have- about 100 billion. - Some areas of the brain, such as the primary motor areas, develop earlier than others, such as the primary sensory areas. - Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first 2 years of life are the spreading connections of dendrites to each other.
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Myelination
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*The process of encasing axons with fat cells. - Myelination both insulates the nerve cells and helps nerve impulses travel faster. - A myelin sheath (a layer of fat cells) encases most axons. - Myelination for visual pathways occurs rapidly after birth and is completed in the first 6 months. - Auditory myelination is not completed until 4-5 years of age. - some aspects of myelination continue into adolescence.
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Brain Hemispheres
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- The highest level of the brain, the cerebral cortex, is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. - There continues to be considerable interest in the degree to which each hemisphere is involved in various aspects of thinking, feeling, and behavior. - The most extensive research on the brain's hemispheres has focused on language. *- At birth, the hemispheres have already started to specialize, with newborns showing greater electrical brain activity in the left hemisphere than the right hemisphere when listening to speech.
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Early Experience and the Brain
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- Starting shortly after birth, a baby's brain produces trillions more connections between neurons than it can possibly use. *- The brain eliminates connections that are seldom or never used- continuing at least until 10 years of age (PRUNING) - Current belief is that the infant's brain is waiting for experiences to determine how connections are made. - Before birth, genes appear to direct how the brain establishes basic wiring patterns. - after birth, environmental experiences are important in the brain's development
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Infant States
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- Developmentalists are interested in infants' states of consciousness, or levels of awareness - Classifying infant states has helped researchers identify many aspects of infant development, such as the sleep-waking cycle. *-Newborns sleep 16-17 hours a day with individual variations. - Most 1-month-olds begin sleeping longer at night - Most 4-month-olds- usually have moved closer to adultlike sleep patterns - Researchers have found cultural variations in infant sleeping patterns
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REM ( Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep
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*A recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. - Most adults spend about one-fifth of their night in REM sleep - Infants spend about one-half of their sleep in REM sleep and it begins their sleep cycle - By 3 months the percentage for REM sleep falls to 40%, and it no longer starts their sleep cycle - REM sleep is thought to promote the brain's development in infancy.
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Shared Sleeping
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- There exists considerable variation across cultures in newborns' sleeping arrangements. - Some child experts believe shared sleeping is beneficial with regard to promoting breast feeding, responsiveness to infant crying, and detection of dangerous breathing pauses. - The American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Infant Positioning and SIDS recommends against shared sleeping due to an increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). - Shared Sleeping remains a controversial issue.
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SIDS
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* Sudden Infant Death Syndrome is a condition that occurs when infants stop breathing, usually during the night, and suddenly die without apparent cause. - It is the highest cause of infant death in the U.S. with approximately 13% of all infant deaths due to SIDS. - Risk of SIDS is highest at 5-6 weeks of age. - Some researchers believe that an inability to swallow effectively in the prone sleeping position is an important factor in SIDS. - The American Academy of Pediatrics has recommended since 1992 that infants sleep on their backs.
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Risk Factors for SIDS
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- Low birthweight infants are 5 to 10 times more likely to die of SIDS - Twins and triplets, even at normal birthweight, are twice as likely to die of SIDS. - After one twin dies, the surviving twin has an increased risk of dying from SIDS - Infants whose siblings have died of SIDS are two to four times as likely to die of it. - Six percent of infants with sleep apnea, a temporary cessation of breathing in which the airway is completely blocked, usually for 10 seconds or longer, die of SIDS. - African American and Eskimos infants are four to six times as likely as all others to die of SIDS - SIDS is more common in lower socioeconomic groups. - SIDS is more common in infants who are passively exposed to cigarette smoke. - Soft bedding is not recommended.
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Nutritional Needs and Eating Behavior
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- The importance of adequate energy and nutrient intake consumed in a loving and supportive environment during the infant years cannot be overstated. - Nutritionists recommend that infants consume approximately 50 calories per day for each pound they weigh—more than twice an adult's requirement per pound. - A controversy has existed over whether infants should be fed on a regular schedule (e.g., 4 ounces of formula every 6 hours), or fed on demand (determined by the infant). - Diets designed for adult weight loss and prevention of heart disease may actually retard growth and development in babies, who need high-energy, high-calorie food.
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Marasmus
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- Marasmus is a wasting away of body tissues in the infant's first year, caused by severe protein-calorie deficiency. - Infant becomes grossly underweight and muscles atrophy
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Kwashiorkor
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- Kwashiorkor is a condition caused by a deficiency in protein in which the child's face, legs, and abdomen swell with water. - It causes a child's vital organs to collect the nutrients that are present and deprive other parts of the body of them. - The child's hair also becomes thin, brittle, and colorless. - The child's behavior also often becomes listless
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Reflexes
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- Reflexes, genetically carried survival mechanisms, govern the newborn's movements. - They are automatic and beyond the newborn's control; built-in reactions to stimuli. - In these reflexes, infants have adaptive responses to their environment before they've had the opportunity to learn. - Reflexes may serve as important building blocks for subsequent purposeful motor activity.
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The Sucking Reflex
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- Occurs when newborns automatically suck an object placed in their mouth. - Enables newborns to get nourishment before they have associated a nipple with food. - Present at birth; later disappears at 3-4 months. - Most newborns take several weeks to establish a sucking style that is coordinated with the way the mother is holding the infant, the way the milk is coming out of the bottle or breast, and the infant's sucking speed and temperament.
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The Rooting Reflex
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- The rooting reflex occurs when the infant's cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched. - In response, the infant turns its head toward the side that was touched in an apparent effort to find something to suck. - The rooting reflex disappears when the infant is 3-4 months old, as it is replaced by the infant's voluntary eating.
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The Moro Reflex
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- The Moro reflex is a neonatal startle response that occurs in response to a sudden, intense noise or movement. - When startled, a newborn arches its back, throws back its head, and flings out its arms and legs. - The newborn then rapidly closes its arms and legs to the center of its body. - Steady pressure on any part of the infant's body calms the infant after it has been startled. - Tends to disappear around 3-4 months of age.
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The Grasping Reflex
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- Occurs when something touches the infant's palms. - Infant responds by grasping tightly. - Replaced around the end of the third month by voluntary grasps, often produced by visual stimuli
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Babinski
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A reflex seen in infants where the toes fan out when the sole of the foot is stroked.
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Swimming Reflex
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When placed in water the infant will make paddling actions, and hold breath
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Stepping Reflex
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If baby is held up with feet on surface, will mimic walking
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Tonic Neck Reflex
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baby laid on back, turns head to left and clenches fist (also known as the Fencer position)
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Blinking Reflex
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Light or air causes eye to blink, reflex does not go away.
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Gross Motor Skills
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- Gross motor skills involve large muscle activities, such as moving one's arms and walking. - These are the most dramatic and observable changes in the infant's first year of life. - The actual month at which gross motor milestones occur varies by as much as 2 to 4 months. - The sequence of accomplishments is quite uniform. - In the second year of life toddlers become more motorically skilled and mobile. - Development experts believe that motor activity during the second year is vital to the child's competent development, and that few restrictions (other than for safety) should be placed on their motoric adventures.
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Gross Motor Skill Milestones
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- Birth - no appreciable coordination of the chest or arms - (1st month) - lift head from a prone position - (3 months) - hold chest up and use arms for support - (3-4 months) - roll over - (4-5 months) - support some weight with legs - (6 months) - sit without support - (7-8 months) - crawl and stand without support - (8 months) - pull up to a standing position - (10-11 months) - walk using furniture for support (cruising) - (12-13 months) - walk without assistance - (13-18 months) - pull a toy, climb some steps - (18-24 months) - walk quickly, run stiffly, squat, kick, jump
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Fine Motor Skills
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- Fine motor skills involve more finely-tuned movements, such as finger dexterity. - Infants have hardly any control over fine motor skills at birth. - They do have many components of what later become finely coordinated arm, hand, and finger movements. - The development of reaching and grasping becomes more refined during the first 2 years of life. - Initially, infants show only crude shoulder and elbow movements, but later they show wrist movements, hand rotation, and coordination of the thumb and forefinger. - The maturation of hand-eye coordination over the first 2 years is reflected in the improvement of fine motor skills
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Sensation
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- Sensation occurs when information interacts with sensory receptors—the eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skin. - The sensation of hearing occurs when waves of pulsating air are collected by the outer ear and transmitted through the bones of the inner ear to the auditory nerve.
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Perception
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- Perception is the interpretation of what is sensed. - The information about physical events that contact the ears may be interpreted as musical sounds, human speech, or a jet engine.
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Visual Acuity and Color
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- The newborn's vision is estimated to be 20/400 to 20/800 on the Snellan chart—about 10-30 times lower than normal adult vision (20/20). - By 6 months of age vision is 20/100 or better. - By the first birthday, the infant's vision approximates that of an adult. - At birth, babies can distinguish green and red. - By 2 months of age, there is adultlike functioning in all three types (red, blue, green) of color-sensitive receptor (cones).
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ROBERT FANTZ
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American Psychologist who did pioneered studies into infant visual perception.
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Depth Perception
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- Gibson and Walk conducted the classic "visual cliff" experiment in 1960 to assess how early infants could perceive depth. - They placed a piece of glass over a drop-off patterned the same as the table next to it. - Mothers coaxed their infants from across the "cliff" to see if they would crawl on the glass over the drop-off. - Most infants would not crawl out onto the glass, choosing instead to remain on the shallow side—indicating they could perceive depth. - Problems with drawing a conclusion as to how early depth perception is present include the fact that very young infants can't crawl—a requirement of the study.
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Other Senses
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- Hearing - Touch - Pain - Smell - Taste
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Hearing
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- In the last few months of pregnancy, a fetus can hear sounds (the mother's voice, music, etc.) - After birth, infants responded in a certain way when mothers read them a story that they had read to them during the 6 weeks prior to birth. - This finding suggests that the infants recognized the story's pattern and tone—something they'd only been exposed to prenatally. - Infants can hear immediately after birth, but a sound must be louder to be heard by a newborn than an adult. - As infants age from 8 to 28 weeks, they become more proficient in localizing sounds. - Infants are born with the ability to discriminate speech sounds from any language, but without constant exposure, they lose the ability by their first birthday.
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Touch and Pain
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- Newborns respond to touch, particularly with the sucking and rooting reflex. - An important ability that develops during the first year is to connect information about vision with information about touch. - It used to be believed that newborns were impervious to pain, but it is now known that it is not true. - Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol (a stress indicator) after a circumcision than prior to the surgery. - Anesthesia is now used in some cases of circumcision
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Smell and Taste
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- Newborns can differentiate odors. - They appear to like vanilla and strawberry scents, but not those of rotten eggs and fish. - Infants do require several days of experience to show preference for the scent of their mother's breast pad. - Sensitivity to taste may be present prior to birth due to increased swallowing of a near-term fetus when saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid. - Two-hour-old newborns made different facial expressions when they tasted sweet, sour, and bitter solutions. - At 4 months of age, infants prefer salty tastes, which newborns found aversive.
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Intermodal Perception
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- The ability to relate and integrate information about two or more sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing. - Various studies have found that infants as young as 3½ months not only can coordinate visual-auditory information, but prefer to experience what they see together with what they hear.
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Perceptual-Motor Coupling and Unification
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- There is an increasing belief that perceptual and motor development do not occur in isolation from one another but, rather, are coupled. - Individuals perceive in order to move and move in order to perceive.
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SENSORIMOTOR DEVELOPMENT STAGE
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- According to Piaget, this stage lasts from birth to about 2 years of age. - Mental development is characterized by considerable progression in the infant's ability to organize and coordinate sensations with physical movements and actions. - Children progress from having little more than reflexive patterns to work with to complex sensorimotor patterns and a primitive system of symbols.
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Substages of Sensorimotor Development
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*- Simple reflexes - First habits and primary circular reactions - Secondary circular reactions - Coordination of secondary circular reactions - Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity *-Internalization of schemes
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Internalization of Schemes
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- This stage develops between 18-24 months. - The infant's mental functioning shifts from a purely sensorimotor plane to a symbolic plane. - The infant develops the ability to use primitive symbols (internalized sensory images or words that represent events). - Primitive symbols permit infant to think about concrete events without directly acting out or perceiving them. - Symbols also allow the infant to manipulate and transform the represented events in simple ways.
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Object Permanence
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Object permanence is the Piagetian term for understanding that objects and events continue to exist, even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched
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Conditioning
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- Both classical and operant conditioning have been demonstrated to occur in infants. - If an infant's behavior is followed by a rewarding stimulus, the behavior is likely to recur. - Operant conditioning has been helpful to researchers in their efforts to determine what infants perceive. - Studies have demonstrated that infants can retain information from the experience of being conditioned.
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Classical Conditioning
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(also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is a learning process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus; this is achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with the potent stimulus.
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Operant Conditioning
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is a learning process in which behavior is sensitive to, or controlled by its consequences.
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Habituation and DisHabituation
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- Habituation is the process by which infants become uninterested in a stimulus and respond less to it after it is repeatedly presented to them. - Dishabituation is an infant's renewed interest in a stimulus. - Newborns habituate in virtually every stimulus modality, but habituation grows more acute over first 3 months. - Habituation can be used to tell us much about infants' perception, such as the extent to which they can see, hear, smell, taste, and experience touch. - Habituation can tell us whether infants recognize something they have previously experienced. - A knowledge of habituation and dishabituation can benefit parent-infant interactions.
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Imitation
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- Andrew Meltzoff believes infants' imitative abilities to be biologically based because they can imitate a facial expression within the first few days after birth. - This occurs before they've had the opportunity to observe social agents in their environment or the behaviors they have been observed to imitate. - Meltzoff also believes infant imitation involves flexibility, adaptability, and intermodal perception. - Not all experts accept Meltzoff's conclusions and believe the babies were automatically responding to a stimulus.
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Memory in Infancy
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- Memory is a central feature of cognitive development that involves the retention of information over time. - Some argue that infants as young as 2-6 months can remember some experiences through 1½-2 years of age. - Critics of these findings argue that they fail to distinguish between implicit memory and explicit memory. - Most researchers don't find that explicit memory occurs until the second half of the first year. - Most adults cannot remember anything from the first 3 years of life, a phenomenon referred to as infant amnesia. - One explanation of infant amnesia focuses on the maturation of the brain, especially in the frontal lobes, which occur after infancy.
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Bayley Scales of Infant Development
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- These scales are widely used in the assessment of infant development. - The current version has 3 components: a mental scale, a motor scale, and an infant behavior profile. - It includes assessment of the following: Auditory and visual attention to stimuli Manipulation, such as shaking a rattle Examiner interaction, such as babbling and imitation Relation with toys, such as banging spoons together Memory involved in object permanence Goal-directed behavior that involves persistence Ability to follow directions and knowledge of objects' names
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Defining Language
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- Language is a form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed, that is based on a system of symbols. - All human languages have some common characteristics such as infinite generativity and organizational rules. - Infinite generativity is the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules.
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How Language Develops
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- (First few months of life) - infants startle to sharp noises - (3-6 months) - begin to show an interest in sounds, respond to voices - (6-9 months) - babbling begins (goo-goo) due to biological maturation; infants also begin to understand their first words -Early communication is in the form of pragmatics to get attention: making or breaking eye contact vocalizing sounds performing manual actions such as pointing - (10-15 months) - the infant utters its first word
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Telegraphic Speech
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Speech that sounds very much like a telegram, has words arranged in an order that makes sense, and contains almost all nouns and verbs. For example, a child at this stage of development who wants to get milk may say "get milk", as opposed to saying just "milk". As you can see, there are only two words, they are in an order that makes sense, there is one verb and one noun, and it sounds like a telegram.
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The First Words
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- A child's first words include those that name: - Important people (dada) -Body parts (eye) - Familiar animals (kitty) -Clothes (hat) - Vehicles (car) -Household items (keys) - Toys (ball) -Greeting terms (bye) -Food (milk) - These were the first words of babies 50 years ago and they are the first words of babies today. - One theory as to the meaning of these one-word utterances is that they stand for an entire sentence in the infant's mind. - The holophrase hypothesis states that a single word can be used to imply a complete sentence, and that infants' first words characteristically are holophrastic.
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Meanings Expressed in Children's Two Word Utterances
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Identification: "See doggie" Location: "Book there" Repetition: "More milk" Nonexistence: "All gone thing" Negation: "Not wolf" Possession: "My doggy" Attribution: "Big car" Agent-action: "Mama walk" Action-direct object: "Hit you" Action-indirect object: "Give Papa" Action-instrument: "Cut knife" Question: "Where ball?"
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Biological Prewiring
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- Linguist Noam Chomsky believes humans are biologically prewired to learn language at a certain time, in a certain way. - He states children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD)—a biological endowment that enables them to detect certain language categories, such as phonology, syntax, and semantics. - The LAD is a theoretical construct that flows from evidence about the biological basis of language. - Supporters of this concept cite: -the uniformity of language milestones across languages and cultures -biological substrates for language -evidence that children create language even in the absence of well-formed input (e.g., deaf children)